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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION AND EXECUTIVE SKILLS

Good communication is as stimulating as black coffee and just as hard to sleep after. Communication is a process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people. It should include both transference and the understanding of meaning.

Communication is the life blood of social as well as corporate world. We exist because we communicate. Even our silence communicates a lot. We all have a layman’s idea of what communication is , but let us try to understand the concept fully so that we can use it effectively.

Communication is the process by which we exchange meanings , facts , ideas ,opinions or emotions with other people. It is an essential condition of our existence and the most important activity of ours. The word communication has been derived from Latin word “ communicare/communis’ that means to ‘share’ or ‘participate’ . Everybody knows that most of the time , through speech or writing or any other means like exchange of a common set of symbols , we are sharing information with other human beings. It is , therefore , first and foremost a social activity. Man as a social animal has to communicate.

Communication is an exchange of facts , ideas , opinions or emotions by two or more persons.

General communication is different from business communication / Administrative communication.

According to William Scott in his book organizational theory “ Administrative communication is a process which involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals”

Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages. However it is said to be effective only when the message is understood and when it stimulates action or encourages the receiver to think in new ways.

OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION

1. STRONGER DECISION MAKING

Your ability to communicate effectively increases productivity , both yours and your organization.

2. INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY

With good communication skills , you can anticipate problems , make decisions , co-ordinate work flow , supervise others , develop relationships and promote products and services.

3. STEADIER WORK FLOW

Communication acts as tool for the effective work related flow of information.

4. STRONG BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS & ENHANCED PROFESSIONAL IMAGE

You can shape the impressions you and your company make on colleagues , employees ,supervisors , investors ,and customers in addition to perceiving and responding to the needs of these stakeholders(the various group you interact with ) without effective communication , people misunderstand each other and misinterpret information. Ideas misfire or fail to gain attention and people and companies flounder.

5. CLEARER PROMOTIONAL MATERIALS

Your organizations need for effective reach of company name and public promotions are based on effective promotional material such as advertisements , bill boards , online add , posters etc are all communicated for effective message delivery and meaning.

6. PROVIDE ADVICE

Giving advice is based on individual-oriented and work-oriented ,advice should not given to the person for pinpointing his mistakes rather it should be helpful for his improvement. Effective advice promotes understanding and it can be a two way process if the subordinate staff given freedom.

7. PROVIDE ORDER

Order is an authoritative communication pattern and it is directive to somebody always a subordinate to do something. Orders will be written and oral orders , general and specific orders ,procedural and operational orders , mandatory and discretionary order. Order should be clear and complete ,execution should be possible and given in a friendly way.

8.SUGGESTION

Suggestion is supposed to be very mild and subtle form of communication. Suggestions are welcomed for it is not obligatory to accept them , it can be voluntary and anonymous and submitted through suggestion boxes.

9. PERSUASION

Persuasion may be defined as an effort ‘ to influence the attitudes , feelings ,or beliefs of others , or to influence actions based on those attitudes , feelings , or beliefs. Persuasion can be done to others if you are convinced , you do not impose , you are not rigid are prepared to meet half-way and you can look at the situation from the other person’s angle also.

10. EDUCATION

Education is a very conscious process of communication ,it involves both teaching and learning by which organizations provide to their employees in the form of training. Education is given for management , employees and outside public.

12. WARNING

If the employees do not abide by the norms of the organization warning is a power communication tool and it can be general and specific. Specific warning should be administered in private and after thorough investigation. The aim of the warning should be the organization betterment.

13. RAISING MORALE AND MOTIVATION

Morale stands for mental health and it is a sum of several qualities like courage , resolution , confidence .High morale and effective performance go hand to hand. Motivation is a process that account for an individual intensity, direction , and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.

14. TO GIVE AND RECEIVE INFORMATION

Communication’s main idea is to give and receive information because managers need complete , accurate and precise information to plan and organize employee need it to translate planning in to reality. Information will cover all aspects of the business.

15. TO PROVIDE COUNSELLING

Counseling is given to solve employees mental stress and improve the employees productivity.

16. TO IMPROVE DISCIPLINE

Finally discipline is the foremost part of any business communication. The various disciplinary codes are effectively communicated to employees through disciplinary codes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS MESSAGES

Effective business messages have a common basic characteristics

1. Provide practical information : Business messages usually describe how to do something , explain why a procedure was changed , highlight the cause of a problem or a possible solution , discuss the status of a project , or explain why a new piece of equipment should be purchased.

2. Give facts rather than impression : Business messages use concrete language and specific details. Information must be clear , convincing , accurate and ethical. You must present hard evidence ( not just opinion ) and present all sides of an argument before you commit to a conclusion.

3. Clarify and condense information : Business messages frequently use tables , charts , photos , or diagrams to clarify or condense information , to explain a process , or to emphasize important information.

4. State precise responsibilities : Business messages are directed to a specific audience. Therefore , you must clearly state what is expected of , or what you can do for, that particular audience.

5. Persuade others and offer recommendations : Business messages frequently persuade employers , customers , or clients to purchase a product or service or adopt a plan of action. To be effective , persuasive messages must show readers just how a product , service or idea will benefit them specifically.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS MODEL

PHASE 1

A person has an idea or thought which he wants to communicate to the other person. Now the sender sends the message with a carefully selected medium and channel. The sender encodes the idea (i.e) Written or spoken word , facial expression , gesture. The message length,tone, and style all depends on your audience and your personal style or mood. The sender transmits the message to the receiver in a form of channel (i.e) Telephone , letter , memo , email , report , face to face exchange.

PHASE 2

The message will now enter in to the sensory world of the receiver. Sensory world we mean all the noise that surrounds a person that the senses sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch can detect.

PHASE 3

From this sensory world the receiver picks up the messages through his senses. But receiver senses cannot detect all that exists in the world around him. Just how much they can detect depends on a number of factors. One is the ability of his senses. As you know not all eyes see equally well and not all ears hear equally well. And so it is with the other senses. Another factor is receiver mental alertness. There are times when he is keenly alert to all that his senses can detect, and there are times when he is dull – in a stupor, a daydream, or the like. Then there are the distractions “NOISES” that occur around receiver at the moment. They can weaken, perhaps even eliminate, the stimuli sent. Furthermore, receiver cultural background has sensitized him more to some stimuli than to others. Yet another limiting factor is the receiver will. In varying degrees, the mind is able to tune in or tune out events in the sensory world. In a noisy room full of people for example, the conversation of a single person can be selected and the other voices ignored.

PHASE 4

When receiver senses pick up sender message, they relay it to his brain-that is, as much or as little of the message as they detect. But the sender message may not be all that receiver senses pick up. In addition to sender message, his sensory world may contain outside sounds, movements of objects, facial expression, and the like. In fact, this senses are continually picking up messages from the world around him. Sender message is just the primary one at the moment. The others are there, and they might interfere with sender’s message.

PHASE 5

When sender message gets to receiver brain, it goes through a sort of filtering or decoding process. Through that process the receiver brain gives meaning to sender message. In other words, the message is filtered through the contents of receiver mind. Those contents are made up of all receiver knows. It includes all the cultural influences of his family , his organization memberships, his social group, and such. In fact, it includes all receiver has learned, experienced and thought throughout his life. Obviously , no two people have precisely identical filters, for no two people have minds with precisely the same contents. Because people’ filters differ, the meanings they give to comparable message may differ. Thus, the meaning receiver gives sender message may not be precisely the same as the one that someone else would give it. And it may not be meaning sender intended.

PHASE 6

After his mind has given meaning to sender message, receiver may react to the message. If the meaning he received is sufficiently strong, he may react by communicating some form of response called feedback. This response may be through words, gestures, physical actions or some other means.

PHASE 7

When receiver elects to communicate a response, through his mind he determines the general meaning encoding that the response will take. This process involves the most complex workings of the mind, and we know little about it. There is evidence, however, that ability, here and throughout this stage, is related to one’s intelligence and the extent that one permits the mind to react. Receiver ability to evaluate filtered information and formulate meaning also is related to his stage, is related to one’s intelligence and the extent that one permits the mind to react. Receiver ability to evaluate filtered information and formulate meaning also is related to his ability with language. Ability with language equips one with a variety of symbols, words and other ways of expressing meaning. And the greater the number of symbols one possesses, the better one can be at selecting and using them. Receiver ends this stage of the communication process by forming a message. That is, he converts meaning in to symbols decodes mainly in to words, and then he sends these symbols to sender. He may send them in a number of ways: as spoken words, written words, gestures, movements, facial expression, diagrams on paper etc.

PHASE 8

When receiver sends his message to sender, one cycle of the communication process ends. Now a second cycle begins. Now the sender becomes the receiver and receiver becomes the sender. The message enters receiver sensory world. Her senses pick it up and send it through her nervous system to her brain. There her unique mental filter influences the meaning he gives to sender message. This filtered meaning also may bring about a response. If it does, receiver, through her mind, selects the symbols for his response. Then he sends them to sender, and another cycle of communication begins. The process may continue, cycle after cycle, as long as both sender and receiver want to communicate.

Although our description of the communication process illustrates face to face, oral communication, it also fits written communication. But there are some differences. Perhaps the most significant difference is that written communication is more likely to involve creative effort. It is more likely to be thought out, and it may even begin in the mind rather than as a reaction to a message received. A second differences is the time between cycles. In face to face communication, cycles occur fast, often in rapid succession. In written communication, some delay occurs. How long the delay will be varies. While instant and text messaging may be read within a few seconds of sending, fax or email messages may be read within few minutes after they are transmitted, letters in a few days, reports perhaps in days, weeks, or months. Because they provide a record, written messages may communicate over extremely long time periods. A third difference is that written communication usually involves a limited number of cycles and oral communication usually involves many. In fact, some written communication is one cycle communication. That is a message is sent and received, but none is returned.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication serves four major functions within a group or organization: Control, motivation, emotional expression, and information. Communication acts to control member behavior in several ways. Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines that employees are required to follow. When employees, for instance, are required to first communicate any job related grievance to their immediate boss, to follow their job description, or to comply with company policies, communication is performing a control function. But informal communication also controls behavior. When work groups tease or harass a member who produces too much and makes the rest of the group look bad, they are informally communicating with, and controlling, the member’s behavior. Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance if it’s subpar. We saw this operating in our review of goal setting and reinforcement theories. The formation of specific goals, feedback on progress toward the goals, and reinforcement of desired behavior all stimulate motivation and require communication. For many employees, their work group is a primary source for social interaction. The communication that takes place within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction. Communication, therefore, provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs. The final function that communication performs relates to its role in facilitating decision making. It provides the information that individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data to identify and evaluate alternative choices.

Common myths about communication:

— Words contain meaning . Untrue . In fact people attach meaning to words.

— Information equals communication. Untrue. What matters is the degree of similarity between the message sent and the message received.

— Communication is a product you can control. Untrue everything said or done conveys a message. Ex. Facial expression or cloths.

— Good speakers are good communicators. Untrue . Effective communicators listen to the audience and express their thoughts clearly in an understandable way.

Taking steps to establish effective communication :

— Increasing the awareness of communication

— Using and understanding verbal message

— Using and understanding non linguistic cues

— Listening and responding to other in a thought fuel way.

Attentive listening is crucial to effective listening :

Remember , Do not jump to conclusions before hearing what the other person has to say.

Do not interrupt

Deep understanding of human interaction is essential.

Since interpersonal communication occurs whenever we interact with other people. We learn interpersonal skills since birth.

We could enhance them with :

The 10 human relations commands :-

1. Speak to people
2. Smile at people
3. Call people by name
4. Be friendly and helpful
5. Be cordial
6. Be genuinely interested in people
7. Be generous with praise
8. Be considerate
9. Be alert
10. Have a good sense of humor.

Six rules of effective communication:

1) Organize your thoughts

2) Don’t think about it, think through it

3) Recognize that actions speak louder than words

4) Be concise

5) Always translate your message in to benefits for the other party

6) Listen carefully to the other party.

Effective communication strategies:

ì The result of the communication is the responsibility of the communicator

ì If you are not getting the result you want in communication try something different. Communicate the message in others view point

ì Always focus weather your communication is successful in reaching the receiver. No matter whether the message is right or wrong.

ì Communication can change reality and it is a effective tool for creating trust.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!END!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Whether an organization is large , small or virtual , sharing information among its parts and with the outside world is the glue that binds the organization together. When you join a company , you become a link in its information chain. Whether you’re a top manager or an entry-level employee , you have information that others need in order to perform their jobs, and others have information that is crucial to you. To succeed organization must share information with people both inside and outside the company. It includes the internal and external structure through which messages pass and the way information is presented , as well as the actual content of the messages themselves. As you exchange information with people inside and outside the organization you use a variety of formal and informal forms of communication.

COMMUNICATION

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION :It refers to the exchange of information and ideas within an organization. As employee, you are in a position to observe things that your supervisors and co-workers cannot see: a customer’s first reaction to a product display , a supplier’s brief hesitation before agreeing to a delivery date or a slowdown in the flow of customers. Managers and co-workers need these little gems of information in order to do their jobs. Internal communication helps employees do their jobs , develop a clear sense of the organization’s mission and identify and react quickly to potential problems. To maintain a healthy flow of information within the organization , effective communicators use both formal and informal channels.

Formal internal communication network : The formal flow of information follows the official chain of command. There are organizational charts in many company’s which commands good communication flow. Boyka undisputed cast. In organization information flows down , up , and across the formal hierarchy.

Downward flow : Organizational decisions are usually made at the top and then flow down to the people who will carry them out. Most of what filters downward is geared towards helping employees do their jobs. From top to bottom , each person must understand each message , apply it , and pass it along.

Upward Flow : To solve problems and make intelligent decisions , managers must learn what’s going on in the organization. Because they can’t be everywhere at once, executives depend on lower-level employees to furnish them with accurate , timely reports on problems , emerging trends , opportunities for improvement , grievances , and performance.

Horizontal flow : Communication also flows from one department to another , either laterally or diagonally. This horizontal communication helps employees share information and coordinate tasks , and it is especially useful for solving complex and difficult problems.

Formal organization charts illustrate how information is supposed to flow. In actual practice , however , lines and boxes on a piece of paper cannot prevent people from talking with one another.

Informal internal communication : Every organization has an informal communication network known as grapevine that supplements official channels. As people go about their work , they have casual conversations with their friends in the office. Although many of these conversations deal with personal matters , about 80 percent of the information that travels along the grapevine pertains to business. The informal communication network carries information along the organization’s unofficial lines of activity and power. The grapevine is an important source of information in most organizations.

EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION: The external communication network links the organization with the outside world of customers , suppliers , competitors , and investors , journalists , and community representatives. Sometimes this external communication is carefully orchestrated – especially during a crisis. At other times it occurs informally as part of routine business operations.

Formal external communication : Companies use external communication to create a favorable impression. Whether by letter , website , phone , fax , internet , or videotape , good communication is the first step in creating a favorable impression. Carefully constructed letters , reports , memos , oral presentation , and websites convey an important message to outsiders about the quality of your organization. Messages such as statements to the press , letters to investors , advertisements , price increase announcements and litigation updates require special care because of their delicate nature. Therefore , such documents are often drafted by a marketing or public relations team – a group of individuals whose sole job is creating and managing the flow of formal messages to outsiders. The public relations team is also responsible for helping management plan for and respond to crises – which can range from environmental accidents or sabotage situations to strikes , massive product failure , major litigation , or even an abrupt change in management. To minimize the impact of any crisis , expert communicators advise managers to communicate honestly , openly , and often. If handled improperly , a crises can destroy a company’s reputation.

Informal external communication : Although companies usually communicate with outsiders in a formal manner , informal contacts with outsiders are important for learning about customer needs. As a member of an organization , you are an important informal conduit for communicating with the outside world. Every employee informally accumulates facts and impressions that contribute to the organizations collective understanding of the outside world. In the course of your daily activity you unconsciously absorb bits and pieces of information that add to the collective knowledge of your company. Top managers rely heavily on informal contacts with outsiders to gather information that might be useful to their companies. Much of their networking involves interaction with fellow executives. Many top level employees recognize the fact that keeping constant touch with the external real world , front line employees , customers by making a opportunity to talk to them and getting feedback helps in organizational improvement. Receiving feedback is considered to be the most important aspect of communication.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS WRITING

ADAPTATION AND THE SELECTION OF WORDS

CONSTRUCTION OF CLEAR SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS

WRITING FOR EFFECT

1. I. ADAPTATION AND THE SELECTION OF WORDS

The study of clear business writing logically begins with adaptation. By adaptation we mean fitting the message to the specific reader. You should form your message to fit that person’s mind. This process of adaptation begins with visualizing what the reader imagine, what he feels, thinks and such. In many business situations, adapting to your reader means writing on a level lower than the one you would normally use. In writing to less educated workers, for example you may need to simplification, for highly educated people you may write differently. At times adapting to multiple reader, if you write for one person in the group, you may miss the others. To communicate with all of them, write for the lowest member of the group. There fore adaptation is a basic rule which underlines all writing aspects.

SUGGESTIONS FOR SELECTING WORD

Selecting the write word is a part of a adaptation. Following are some suggestions to help you select words. These suggestions stress simplicity for three reasons (1) Many people tend to write at a difficult level (2) The writer usually knows the subject better than the readers and (3) The results of research based on writing skills support simplicity.

SUGGESTION FOR WORD SELECTION

Using familiar words to communicate related to the language that most of us use in everyday conversation. Example Instead of using the terminate, use end. Instead of using endeavor use try. At the same time the suggestion to use familiar words does not rule out some use of more difficult words. Difficult words are not all bad. Use them when they fit your needs and are understood.

USE SLANG AND POPULAR CLICHES WITH CAUTION

At any given time in any society same slang words and clichés are in vogue. Use popular slang and clichés when meaningful. Thus you should use such expressions always only in informal communication with people who know and appreciate them.

CHOOSE SHORT WORDS: Generally short words communicate better than long words. Some times exceptions exist. You should concentrate on short words and use long words with caution. Use a long word only when you think you reader knows it.

USE TECHNICAL WORDS AND ACRONYMS WITH CAUTION

Every field of business, accounting, information systems, and finance has its technical language. This language can be so complex that is some cases specialized dictionaries are compiled. These words are useful when you communicate with people inn your field. But they do not communicate with outsiders. Use them with caution. Some examples – covered employment, cerebral vascular accident, annuity, bob tail etc. These words are all well known to people in special fields, but not to most outsiders. Initials including acronyms should be used with caution too. Spell out and define as needed.

SELECT WORDS WITH RIGHT STRENGTH AND VIGOR

In a way, words are like people, they have personalities some words are strong and vigorous. Some are weak and dull and some fall between these extremes. Good writers know these differences and they consider them carefully. They use the words that do the best job of carrying the intended meaning. As a rule, they make the stronger words stand out. To select words wisely, you should consider shades of difference in meanings. Example bear market is stronger than generally declining market; mother is stronger than female parent. Sometimes weaker words serve your purpose best. Verbs are the strongest words. Verbs are action words. Nouns are second which are the doers of the action, heroes of the sentence. Adjectives and adverbs are weak words. They involve judgment. Use them sparingly.

USE CONCRETE LANGUAGE

Good communication is marked by words that form sharp and clear meaning in the mind. These are concrete words and you should prefer them in your writing. They stand for things that exist in the real world: deck, chair, and road. Abstract nouns on the other hand cover broad meanings – concepts, ideas and the like. Their meaning is general, as in their example administration, communication etc. Concreteness also involves how we put words to gather. Exact or specific wordings are concrete, vague and general wordings are abstract.

USE ACTIVE VOICE

While writing prefer the active voice than passive voice. In active the subject does the action, in passive voice it receives the action. Active voice is stronger and shorter.

Example: Passive voice: The result were reported in our JULY 9 letter

Active voice: we reported the result in our JULY 9 letter.

At times passive voice is better when the doer of the action is not important. Passive voice helps avoid accusing the reader and passive voice is better when the performer is not known. Your decision on whether to use active or passive voice is not simply a matter of choice. It is also better when the writer prefer not to name the performer.

SELECT WORDS FOR PRECISE MEANING:

Writing requires some knowledge of language. In fact, the greater your knowledge of language, the better you are likely to write. You should study language and learn the shades of the difference in meanings of other words. Use correct idiom. By idiom we mean the ways things are said in a language you can use idioms for certain reasons but violations of idiom rule affect the reader.

SUGGESTIONS FOR NON DISCRIMINATORY WRITING:

By discrimination (or) discriminatory words we mean words that do not treat all people equally and with respect. Avoid words that discriminate against sex, race, nationality, age, sexual orientation or disability. We often use discriminatory words without bad intent.

a) Use gender –neutral words : Avoid using masculine pronouns for both sexes (he, his,him)

b) You can make the reference plural (their, them , they)

c) You can express neutral by ( he or she , he/she , you, they etc)

d) Avoid words suggesting male dominance ( Man-made to manufactured, Businessman to business executive, salesman to sales executive)

e) Don’t use words which lower the status of women

f) Avoid words that stereotype by race, nationality, sexual orientation, old age, disability.

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How to Write a Letter

The art of writing a letter takes practice, knowledge about proper form and the ability to put into words the thoughts and feelings which are associated with the letter. Learning to write a letter can be difficult, as there are multiple types of letters which can written. To avoid the time that it may take to learn to write each one of these letters, if you are able to learn to write a basic letter that will help you to create letters for a variety of occasions.

Parts of the Letter:

Your address
At the top of your letter, you will put your address, so the reader will know where to send their reply to.

Date
Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day Year i.e. June, 15, 2009.

Inside Address
The inside address is only required for a business letter and will include the address of the person you are writing to along with the name of the recipient, their title and company name. If you are not sure who the letter should be addressed to either leave it blank or try to put in a title, i.e. “Director of Human Resources”.

The Greeting
The greeting will address the individual that the letter is being sent to. This is usually completed in the form of “Dear Anne” or “Hey Anne”, for less formal letters.

The Introductory Paragraph
The first paragraph and will generally outline the purpose for the letter and the reason that the letter is being sent. This can address any issues that are outstanding and is used to set the tone for the entire rest of the letter. In this first paragraph, the summary of the letter can be found and the intentions which will be displayed through the rest of the letter should be outlined. From the first paragraph of the letter, the introductory paragraph, the individual should be able to note the tone of the letter.

The Body
The body of the letter will expand upon the introductory paragraph and the individual can extend their thoughts and feelings further when it comes to the letter. The body of the letter can be anywhere from multiple pages for personal letters, to one page or two pages for most business letters and other types of proposals.

The Closing

In the closing of the letter, the individual will close the letter and finish any thoughts that have been mentioned. The closing of the letter comes in various forms from yours truly, for those individuals that are familiar with one another, to a traditional sincerely which is a versatile closing that can be used in a variety of letters detailing many situations.

The Presentation of the Letter
The presentation of the letter can be hand-written for less formal letters that are addressed to friends and family members, especially thank-you letters. In the case that you have illegible handwriting, you may want to consider typing the letter in these cases, although proper etiquette dictates against this type of behavior.

Formal letters which are written on behalf of businesses to or professional contacts should remain typewritten and grammatical and spelling error free. These types of letters should be legible and professional and therefore typing the letter is one of the most effective ways to ensure that the letter demonstrates a professional appearance through the entire course of the letter, thereby creating a positive impression on the recipient of the letter.

As well as outward presentation, it is important to determine the tone which will be written in the letter, including a professional tone or a tone that will be taken with friends or family members in a more informal setting. The tone should be established from the greeting of the letter, into the introductory paragraph, throughout the entire body of the letter and even into the closing statement and closing greeting of the letter. Read through the letter once it has been completed to ensure that the tone remains the same. The tone can be adjusted based on the language which is used through the letter, as well as the greetings (familiar as opposed to formal).

Letter Writing Tips

• · Always proofread your letter after writing it, check for sentence structure, grammar, spelling mistakes…
• · Proof read your letter again (and again) after you have revised it.
• · Keep the recipient in mind, and write in a way that he/she can easily understand the letter.
• · Don’t use abbreviated dates, i.e. use November 19, 2004, and not 11/19/04
• · Be respectful when you write, even if you are writing a letter of complaint.

Business letter writing tips

• · Be concise and keep to the point, but don’t leave out any important information.
• · Try to keep your letter short enough so that it fits on one page.
• · If your letter is more than a page long, use another page, don’t use the back of the page.
• · If you have access to company (or personal) stationary with a letterhead on it, use that instead of regular paper.

Business Letter Writing

Purpose of a Business Letter
A business letter (or formal letter) is a formal way of communicating between two or more parties. There are many different uses and business letters. Business letters can be informational, persuasive, motivational, or promotional. Business letters should be typed and printed out on standard 8.5″ x 11″ white paper.

Elements of a Good Letter
The most important element of writing a good letter is your ability to identify and write to your audience. If you are addressing your letter to the department of human resources, avoid using highly technical terms that only engineers would understand, even if your letter is addressed to an engineering company, chances are that the personnel in human resources does not have an engineering background.

The next element is that you make sure your present your objective in a clear and concise manner. Don’t be vague about your objective, most people will not have the patience to sit there and guess at the meaning of your letter or the time to read a long-winded letter, just get to the point without going into unnecessary details.

Another important element to remember is to remain professional. Even if you are writing a complaint letter, remain polite and courteous, simply state the problem(s) along with any other relevant information and be sure to avoid threats and slander.

Business Email Writing

The following are some tips to help you when you are writing business letters through email.

• · A heading is not necessary in an email (your return address, their address, and the date).
• · Use a descriptive subject line.
• · Avoid using an inappropriate or silly email, register a professional sounding address if you don’t have one.
• · Use simple formatting, keep everything flush with the left margin; avoid special formatting and tabs.
• · Keep your letter formal, just because it’s an email instead of a hard copy is no excuse for informality (don’t forget to use spell check and proper grammar).
• · Try to keep your letter less than 80 characters wide, some email readers will create line breaks on anything longer and ruin the formatting.
• · If possible avoid attachments unless the recipient has requested or is expecting an attachment. If it is a text document, simply cut and paste the text below your letter and strip off any special formatting.
• · If the person’s name is unknown, address the person’s title i.e. Dear Director of Human Resources

Business and Workplace Email Etiquette

Email etiquette is often a commonly overlooked part of the business and professional world despite being an important part of conveying a professional image. Emails written to friends and family will be less formal and will not need to follow any particular guidelines or rules, but when writing to someone at a professional level the following guidelines and rules should be taken into account.

Guidelines and Rules of Email Etiquette

• Use a descriptive subject line, avoid leaving it blank or putting an irrelevant or general subject.
• Address the recipient by name to add a personal touch to your letter.
• DO NOT USE ALL CAPS!
• Avoid over using punctuation marks!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Avoid using abbreviations, such as IMHO (in my humble opinion) or TTYL (talk to you later), not everyone is familiar with them.
• Skip a line when starting a new paragraph, avoid using tabs to signify a new paragraph, different email programs read tabs in different ways.
• Avoid using HTML in your e-mails, not everyone can view it and it takes away from the professional image of the letter.
• If you are sending an attachment, make note of it and describe what the attachment is for in the body, some people are very wary of attachments due to the threat of computer viruses.
• Keep your emails as concise as possible without leaving out any important information.
• Keep usage of quoted text to a minimum.
• Always leave a signature line, don’t assume the person already knows who you are.
• Do not keep on sending the same message to the same person over and over again, if they don’t respond after a few days, send them an e-mail enquiring if they received your first email.
• Use spell check and proof read and revise your letter after it’s done.
• Use threads, if you get a message from someone and you are going to respond, don’t send a new message, simply hit the reply option on your email, this keeps the original subject line with “Re:” in front of it.
• If you are sending out an email to a large private list don’t use CC: (carbon copy) use BCC: (blind carbon copy) to protect the addresses of the recipients.
• Remember most emails are never completely private, there is always a chance of someone else besides the intended recipient reading it, so avoid writing any personal attacks which are unprofesional to begin with.
• When reading emails treat them as if they are private messages (unless you know you are allowed to share it with others).
• When you receive a message reply to it as soon as you have time to

.

Business Letter Format

Block Format: Business Letter

The block format is the simplest format; all of the writing is flush against the left margin.

Your Address1
The return address of the sender of the letter so the recipient can easily find out where to send a reply to. Skip a line between your address and the date. (Not needed if the letter is printed on paper with the company letterhead already on it.)

Date2
Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day Year i.e. August 30, 2003. Skip a line between the date and the inside address (some people skip 3 or 4 lines after the date).

Inside Address3
The address of the person you are writing to along with the name of the recipient, their title and company name, if you are not sure who the letter should be addressed to either leave it blank, but try to put in a title, i.e. “Director of Human Resources”. Skip a line between the date and the salutation.

Salutation4
Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name:, Dear Director of Department Name: or To Whom It May Concern: if recipient’s name is unknown. Note that there is a colon after the salutation. Skip a line between the salutation and the subject line or body.

Subject Line (optional) 5
Makes it easier for the recipient to find out what the letter is about. Skip a line between the subject line and the body.

Body6
The body is where you write the content of the letter; the paragraphs should be single spaced with a skipped line between each paragraph. Skip a line between the end of the body and the closing.

Closing7
Let’s the reader know that you are finished with your letter; usually ends with Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that there is a comma after the end of the closing and only the first word in the closing is capitalized. Skip 3-4 lines between the closing and the printed name, so that there is room for the signature.

Signature8
Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink with a pen.

Printed Name9
The printed version of your name, and if desired you can put your title or position on the line underneath it. Skip a line between the printed name and the enclosure.

Enclosure10
If letter contains other document other than the letter itself your letter will include the word “Enclosure.” If there is more than one you would type, “Enclosures (#)” with the # being the number of other documents enclosed that doesn’t include the letter itself. Reference Initials 11
If someone other than yourself typed the letter you will include your initials in capital letters followed by the typist’s initials in lower case in the following format; AG/gs or AG:gs.

Modified Block Format: Business Letter

In the modified block format, your address, date (the date can actually go on either the left or the right side), the closing, signature, and printed name are all indented to the right half of the page (how far you indent in is up to you as long as the heading and closing is lined up, use your own discretion and make sure it looks presentable).

Addressing an Envelope

Addressing an envelope should be fairly simple.

• In the upper-left hand corner should be your name, and underneath that should be your return address.
• In the upper-right hand corner should be the postage stamp (with the correct postage amount).
• In the middle-center should be the recipient’s name and recipient’s address.

Envelope Format

Helpful Tips

• · Print/write all the information on the envelope before stuffing and sealing it so it will be written/printed on a flat surface. · If you are writing to a different country, make sure you put it at on the last line of your return address and the recipient’s address. · If you are writing a friendly letter with a small envelope, you can write the return address on the flap of the envelope if there is no room on the top-left hand corner.

Writing a Complaint Letter

The complaint letter should be written in the business letter format. When writing a complaint letter you want to keep it short and to the point to help ensure that your letter will be read in its entirety, if you write a seven page complaint letter, it’s highly unlikely that someone will sit down and read all seven pages.

The complaint letter should be addressed to the customer service/consumer affairs department or the head office if there is no customer service department. The address and contact information of the customer service department should be available on the company’s products or website.

Complaint Letter Writing

In the first paragraph you should identify what the issue is and any relevant information that you believe is important. Be sure to include the following information if it’s applicable to the situation: the date/time of the issue, location, name of person on duty, name of product, what the problem was, your account number, model number, price, warranty information and reference number. Be sure to stick with the facts and avoid putting emotions into your letter.

The next paragraph should state what you would like done to resolve the situation. If you received poor service, you could request an apology or a coupon. If a product malfunctioned, you could request that you could exchange the product for a new one or request a refund.

The last paragraph should thank the reader for the time. You can also throw in some compliments about something you liked about their company’s product or service.

You should include your telephone number/e-mail address after your printed name so that they can contact you ASAP if necessary.

Be sure to keep a copy of the letter for yourself and include photocopies of any relevant documents and enclose them with your letter.

Writing a Letter of Interest

The letter of interest is also called a “prospecting letter” and with good reason. It’s a type of cover letter you write when you’re searching for a golden job opportunity. The letter of interest is your first chance to make a good impression on a prospective employer.

Letters of interest are written to express your interest in working for a particular company in a specific field. Your letter may be written either in response to a job opening or just to investigate possible employment.

Human resource departments receive dozens of letters of interest each week. However, make your letter stand out from the crowd using the following tips:

1. Before you write, do your homework. Research the background of the company and familiarize yourself with their products and/or services.
2. Be sure to find out the name of the individual who does the hiring. Address your letter to his/her attention and use her/his name in the salutation. “To Whom It May Concern” and “Dear Sir or Madam” are both outdated and considered to be lazy or even rude.
3. Start your introductory paragraph with the reason you are interested in pursuing employment with this company. Try not to start the first sentence with “I”. (See sample letter of interest.) Also, explain what prompted your inquiry, such as a classified advertisement, a media article or interview, or a referral from an employee.
4. In the next paragraph(s), give specific examples of your qualifications. Don’t hesitate to indicate the reasons why you would be an asset to the company. Illustrate your skills, strengths, and achievements in a professional, yet personable way. Stay away from strings of abbreviated credentials. These, if you have them, should be on the resume you’ll enclose with the letter. Direct the reader to your resume and any other enclosures.
5. In your final paragraph, thank the individual for his/her time in considering you as a new employee. Indicate a precise time when you will contact him/her by phone to follow up on your letter. Also, be sure to let the individual know how to contact you.

Like any business letter, use 8.5” x 11” paper and follow a business letter format. Keep your letter short, no more than a single page. Remember to check it thoroughly for errors in spelling, grammar and to be sure it addresses each point you wanted to make.

Cover Letter Writing

What is a cover letter?

A cover letter is a brief one page letter sent along with the resume to potential employers. The purpose of the cover letter is to present yourself to potential employers and to let them know what position you are interested in and why you’d be a good fit for their company.

Cover Letter Format

The cover letter format should be almost identical to the regular business letter format.

Cover Letter Writing

Generally the cover letter will consist of three paragraphs. The first paragraph is an introductory one which introduces yourself. You want to include information on the position you are looking for and how you heard about and why you are interested in the position and/or company.

The second paragraph should provide information on your skill, strengths, education, qualifications and/or experience. This paragraph should be concise and give specific examples of why you are the ideal candidate and not simply restate your resume.

The final paragraph should close up the letter by requesting an interview and possibly suggestion times that are convenient for you or stating that you can come in at a time that’s convenient for the employer. Also you should let the recipient know what the best way and/or time to contact you is (you should let them know both your contact email and phone number so that they can contact you in their preferred method). Or you can let them that you’ll follow up on this letter with a phone call in several days. You should thank them for their time to close up the letter.

Each cover letter that you send out should be unique and tailored to the specific company and position you are applying to. Using one cookie cutter cover letter will lessen your chances for landing an interview. Also be sure to check for grammar and spelling and keep the letter to one page in length.

Writing an Apology Letter

An apology letter shows that you are sorry and says that you value your relationship with the other party. The sooner an apology letter is written and sent out the better it is for the relationship. Depending on the nature of the letter, it can either be written in the friendly or the business letter format.

Friendly/Personal Apology Letter

If this is a personal letter you should start the letter by saying that you are sorry to the recipient. Next you should admit your fault and take responsibility for your actions. Next you should volunteer or ask if there is any way that you can help out to resolve the situation. Then you should let the recipient that you will try to make sure that the situation will not happen again. To close off the letter you should apologize again. When writing a personal apology letter it should come from the heart and be sincere.

Formal/Business Apology Letter

If this is a business letter you should start the letter by saying that you are sorry to the recipient. Next you should give an explanation as to what went wrong. Then you should try to rectify the problem. To close off the letter you should apologize again.

Writing a Letter of Appeal

In cases where unfair treatment was committed, a letter of appeal can help to rectify the situation. An appeal letter allows you to state your side of the story using facts to support your cause to convince the reader(s) to reconsider your case. The letter should be written in the business letter format.

Appeal Letter Writing

The first paragraph should introduce yourself and explain why you are writing the letter. Although it may be difficult, be sure to keep your tone and emotions in check so that you can show that you can present an objective viewpoint. Keep the first paragraph as concise and clear as possible so that the reader can immediately understand its urgency.

The next paragraph(s) should narrate the account of what happened, and why your appeal should be granted. Include all the necessary facts in order to legitimize your case. You can start by referring to your handbook or guidelines as member of that particular group or institution. Also, provide specific times and date when particular events occurred. To make your letter more reader-friendly, use bullet-points every time you need to enumerate. After doing this, refer to testimonials from people related to your work, transcript of records, and medical certificate, if necessary. Be certain to cover all the bases necessary to

The last part should summarize everything you have stated above. Repeat the necessary points that need to be elucidated. Also include the contact details and where you can be reached. Close out the letter by thanking the reader for their time.

Writing an Invitation Letter

An invitation letter serves the purpose of inviting a guest to a party, an event or a celebration while conveying more information than a traditional invitations card. It serves two purposes; one, to invite the individual to the event and two, to ensure that the person receiving the letter is going to attend.

There are two tenses used within the invitation letter, the present and the future. The present tense conveys information about the event and the future tense ensures the guest is going to attend.

Business Invitation Letter
An invitation letter is a formal way to invite peers and clients to events which are being hosted by the company and are one of the most popular ways of inviting guests to functions. The professional invitation should be written in a formal tone, even when being sent to friends and family members, if the letter is also being sent to professional contacts.

The introduction allows the host and sender to introduce themselves, as well as the organization in which they have chosen to represent. A simple background of the individual or company will suffice in this section of the letter.

Next, in the body of the letter it is important to outline all of the information about the event. The date and time should be included as well as the theme and purpose for the event. At this point, a date should be mentioned in which guests should provide their reply by, and it may also contain any information regarding special roles played at the event, attire and items required for the guest to bring.

Be sure to mention any specifications about dress code in the invitation letter.

Next, in one sentence, the appreciation for the guest to attend the party should be shown. This can be completed with a formal note, stating that you look forward to seeing the individual at the event. Remember, this needs to keep in tone with the rest of the letter.

The conclusion should contain the sign off and a line that ties the complete letter together, drawing the end of the invitation, with a salutation and a signature.

Friendly Invitation Letter

A friendly invitation letter is similar to a business letter but contains less formal speech and can make nuances with memories that may be shared with the guests whom are being invited to the occasion.

Friendly invitation letters are used for a variety of reasons from engagement parties and showers to wedding invitations. They can also be used for personal parties and showers as well as housewarming get together. Personal invitation letters should be signed with a less formal sign off, such as; yours sincerely, best, or sincerely.

Invitation letters are used as an alternative to traditional invitations. They allow the host to convey different messages through the tone of the letter. Invitation letters allow the host to convey additional information that what is traditionally shared in an invitation card. Memories can be shared with close friends and family members that bring about memories of past events.

When sending an invitation letter, be sure to edit it completely, ensuring there are no punctuation, grammatical or spelling errors before the letter is sent to potential guests. Using these techniques, you should be able to create personal and professional invitation letters with ease.

Writing a Resignation Letter

Before sitting down and writing a resignation letter, you should be almost 100% certain that you want to leave your current job, if not many complications can arise.

The resignation letter should be written in the business letter format and be directed towards your supervisor or manager.

At a minimum the letter should state that you are leaving, when you are leaving, and thank them for the time that they have employed you. It is common courtesy to give at least two weeks notice before you leave your job, but sometimes you’ll have no control over it.

It is important that you keep your letter positive, you want to maintain a good relationship with your employer and co-workers, and they can be potential future references or business associates. If you feel like your reason for leaving is honorable, you can include the reason for leaving in your letter, but if you think your reason for leaving may rub your employer the wrong way, there is no need to put the reason in your letter.

Resignation Letter Writing

The first paragraph of your letter should state that you are leaving and when you are leaving.

The second paragraph should explain your reason for leaving the company. (This paragraph is optional.)

In the third paragraph you can offer to make your resignation go smoothly for the company. For example, you can offer to help train a replacement with the time you still have left. (This paragraph is also optional.)

The last paragraph should thank the employer for the opportunity to work for, wish them well and/or express interest in maintaning your professional relationship.

Requesting a Letter of Recommendation

Getting a good recommendation letter can significantly help you out in your application process so it is important to ask someone who you are in good terms with for a letter. It is also important to ask someone that knows you well for a recommendation and ask them for it in person. If you are seeking a letter for college or graduate schools, then it is recommended that you request letters from your teachers/professors. If you are seeking a letter for a job, business or professional school then it would be ideal if you got one from your current company. If you have not been at your current company long or if you are not currently employed then asking a previous employer is recommended. If that is not possible seek recommendations from respected professionals that you may know, such as doctors, lawyers, politicians, ministers and so on.

Ask for the letters early on, don’t wait until the day before the letter is supposed to be sent in to request the letters of recommendation. Instead ask ahead of time. If you are going to apply to school ask your professor at least a month ahead of time. If you are seeking a professional letter, ask for a letter of recommendation whenever you leave a job.

Assist the writer with as much material as necessary, providing the writer with your resume and a list of achievements will make it easier on the writer. You may also want to give him/her any information that will help with the letter including your plans for the future, your strengths, experiences and other qualities you want to be presented in the letter. Be honest about the information you give, if you embellish it’ll catch up with you later.

You should provide the writer with a stamped and addressed envelope. Also if there is a guideline that needs to be followed or any other material that needs to be filled out, you should provide that to him/her.

After the letter is sent out, you should send a thank you note to the writer. You can also thank them in person or over the phone as well.

Job Interview Thank You Letters

You should write a thank you letter as soon as possible (within 24 hours is recommended) after the job interview, at a minimum this should be done through email but is recommended that you do this through a hard-copy of a letter printed out of your computer which can be sent in through the postal mail or faxed in. Hand written notes on thank you cards are also acceptable and good for short thank you notes.

A hard-copy thank you letter should be written in the business letter format, while an email should be sent in the same format but without the heading (your return address, their address, and the date).

Thank you letter writing
The first paragraph should consist of thanking the interviewer for the interviewing you (remind him/her about the position you interviewed for and the date of your interview). You can also include information about your impressions about the company.

The second paragraph should state your interests in the company and include any additional information about yourself that was not brought up in the interview which would make you a good candidate for the position. You can also emphasize your qualifications that were already discussed during the interview (don’t make this paragraph too long, try to keep it between 3-5 sentences, pick the traits that you think were most important to the interviewer and emphasize them).

The last paragraph should let the recruiter know that you expect to hear from them soon. Also let them know that you are available to come in again and are willing to discuss the job further. Write down your contact information again and what the best method and/or time to contact you is. To finish up the letter, thank them again for the interview.

Notes/Tips

• A thank you letter shows that you have good business etiquette, your interest in the company and the position, and reiterates your positive qualifications to the interviewer so it should not be put off.
• If there was more than one interviewer; write individual thank you letters to each of the interviewers (make sure each letter is unique). If it was a panel of interviewers interviewing you at the same time, you can send out one letter and address it to the head interviewer and the interview panel and thank them as one group.
• If you forget the spelling or the names of the interviewers, simply call the company and request the proper spelling and title.
• Keep the thank you letter brief; make sure the letter does not go past one page in length.
• Check for proper grammar usage and spelling.

Friendly Letter Writing

Purpose of a Friendly Letter
A friendly letter (or informal letter) is a way of communicating between two people (sometimes more) who are usually well acquainted. There are many uses and reasons for writing a friendly letter, but usually friendly letters will consist of topics on a personal level. Friendly letters can either be printed or hand-written.

Friendly Letter Writing
The friendly letter is typically less formal than that of a business letter. Usually the first paragraph of the body will consist of an introduction which will give the recipient an idea about you’re writing to them with a short summary of the main topic of your letter. If you don’t know the person you are writing to, you may want to introduce yourself in this introductory paragraph as well.

The next few paragraphs will usually consist of the message you want to get across along with any details you may want to convey.

The last paragraph will usually be the conclusion where you wrap everything up. You can sum up your main idea in this paragraph, thank the recipient for their time, wish the recipient well, and/or ask any questions.

Since friendly letters are less formal, you can feel free to write it however you like, but the above format is fairly common.

Writing a Condolence Letter

Writing a letter of condolence is one of the most difficult tasks we undertake because it’s always hard to know just what to say. Of course, what you say depends on how close you were to the deceased and/or the recipient of the letter.

Condolence Letter Writing

A condolence letter should be written in a friendly format. Unless you are a close friend or relative, start the letter by introducing yourself. In the next paragraph, offer your sympathy. The third (and final) paragraph is the place to offer assistance (if you are sincere in your desire to help) and to try to say something that genuinely helps the bereaved work through their grief.

What you don’t say in a condolence letter is almost more important than what you do say. All the same, even if you only write a line or two, you’ll show the family your support.

Condolence Letter Tips/Notes
1. Keep condolence letters short. The family may have a mountain of cards and letters to read and answer. Don’t add to their burden.

2. Never say you know how they feel. Simply put, you don’t. Even if you have endured a similar situation, grief is a very intimate series of feelings that are unique to each individual. Don’t intrude on them.

3. When my son passed away, a well-meaning friend said, “At least he didn’t leave any children behind.” Her well-meaning words rattled me to the bone. I would have gladly given my life to hold his son in my arms just one time. Especially in cases where death was a long-suffering ordeal, you may be tempted to write that it was a “blessing” or “relief”. Don’t. Some words are best left unsaid.

4. Do share a fond memory of the departed in the body (second paragraph) of your letter. The passing of a loved one leaves a big hole in our lives. A well-written condolence letter helps fill the hole with friendship and love.

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PRINCIPLES OF REPORT WRITING

BASICS OF REPORT WRITING:

Business reports are vital to larger organization. You will probably write complex &formal reports when you work for large organization. A business report is an orderly and objective & communication of factual information that serves a business purpose. As key words orderly communication a report is prepared carefully. The objective quality of a report is its unbiased approach. Reports seeks truth. They avoid human bias. The word communication is broad in meaning. It covers all ways of transmitting meaning: Speaking, writing, drawing & such factual information is based on events, records, data and the like. Not all reports are business reports. To be classified as a business report must serve a business purpose.

DETERMINING THE REPORT PURPOSE:

A) THE PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION:

Getting your problem clearly in mind is largely a matter of gathering all the information needed to understand it and then applying your best logic to it. It includes collecting data from company files, talking over the problem with experts, searching through print and electronic sources and discussing the problem those who authorized the report.

B) NEED FOR A CLEAR STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

The next step is writing the problem statement clearly is a good practice. A writing statement of the problem normally takes one of the three forms: Infinitive phrase, question or declarative statement.

(i) Infinitive Phrase : “To determine the causes of decreasing sales at store X”

(ii) Question :”What are the causes of decreasing sales at store X”

(iii) Declarative statement : “store X sales decreasing and management wants to know why“

You may describe the statement of the problem in many ways but meaning should be same.

1) DETERMINING THE FACTORS:

Next step after stating the problem, you should determine what need to be done to solve it. Specifically you look for the factors of the problem. That is you determine what subject area you must look into solve the problem. The problem factors may be three types

(i) they may be subtopics of the overall topic about which the report is concerned.

(ii) They may be hypothesis that must be tested.

iii) In problems that involve comparisons, they may be the bases on which the comparisons are made.

(i) USE OF SUBTOPICS IN INFORMATION REPORTS:

If the problem concerns a need for information, your mental effort should produce the main areas about which information is needed. This is an informational report problem-that is, it requires no analysis, no conclusion, no recommendation. It only requires that information be presented. The mental effort in this case is concerned simply with determining which sub-division of the overall topic should be covered. After thoroughly evaluating the possibilities, you might come up with this analysis:

Problem statement: To review operations of company X from January 1 through March 31

Sub topics:

1) Production

2) Sales & Promotions

3) Financial Status

4) Computer Systems

5) Product Development

6) Human Resources

(ii) HYPOTHESIS FOR PROBLEMS REQUIRING SOLUTION:

Some problems concern why something bad is happening and perhaps how to correct it in analyzing problems of this kind, you should seek explanations or solutions. Such explanations or solutions are termed hypothesis once formulated, hypothesis are tested and their applicability to the problem is either proved or disproved.

Problem Statement: Sales at the spring field store have declined and management wants to know why.

Hypothesis:

1) Activities of the competition have caused the decline.

2) Changes in the economy of the area have caused the decline

3) Merchandising deficiencies have caused the decline

4) Changes in the environment (population shifts, political actions etc) have caused the decline.

In the investigation that follows, you would test there hypothesis. You might find that one, two or all apply or you might find that none is valid. If so, you would have to test advance additional hypothesis for further evaluation.

(iii) BASIS OF COMPARISON IN EVALUATION STUDIES:

When the problem concerns evaluating something, either singularly or in comparison with other thing you should look for the basis for the evaluation that is you should determine what characteristics you will evaluate. In some causes, the procedure may concern more than naming the characteristics.

(EX) To determine the location of ABC company at three different places

City A City B City C

Comparison basis:

1) Availability of skilled workers

2) Tax structure

3) Community attitude

4) Transportation facilities

5) Nearness to market

The factors sometimes have factors of their own. For Example: The Comparison of transportation facilities can be further subdivided into water, rail, truck and air. So they also may be broken down into sub-factors.

GATHERING THE INFORMATION NEEDED:

The next step is to conduct the research needed. For most business problems, you will need to investigate personally. Some business problems require analysis of primary data based on experiments or surveys and few of them require secondary data on library research is used. Most of the data can be gathered from internet & quality materials. In any event your task is to apply whatever research techniques are required to get the information you need for your problem.

INTERPRETING THE FINDINGS:

The next step after collecting the information is interpreting the findings. Applying and interpreting your findings is obviously a mental process. When interpreting the findings avoid human errors by remembering these fundamentals

1) Maintain a judicial attitude

2) Consult with others

3) Test your interpretations

A) STATISTICAL TOOLS IN INTERPRETATION:

The information you gather is quantitative that is expressed in numbers. Such data in their law form usually are voluminous, consisting of tens, hundreds, even thousands of figures. To use these figures intelligently you must find ways to simplifying these data so that you can present these data to your reader. Various statistical tools are available for calculation and interpreting the data.

ORGANIZING THE REPORT INFORMATION:

After finishing the interpreting the results you know the message of your report. Now your information are presented in a form of outline. Outlines should usually be written. They serve as tables of contents and captions. In constructing your outline, you probably will use either the conventional as the decimal symbol system to mark the levels.

Conventional system & decimal system:

(EX) I.

A. 1.0

B. 1.1

2. (Conventional System) 1.2 (Decimal system)

a. 1.2.1

(1) 1.2.2

(a) 1.2.2.1

1.2.2.1.1 etc

THE NATURE AND EXTEND OF OUTLINING:

The outline is designed to meet the objective of the report. You should build the outline around the objective of the report and the information you have gathered to meet that objective with the and your information in mind, you build the structure of the report mentally. In this process, you shift facts and ideas about until the most workable order becomes clear. That order is that presents the findings in the clearest and meaningful way. When you reach the outlining stage, you have probably done some of the work.

A) INTRODUCTORY AND CONCLUDING PARTS:

Outlining is concerned mainly with the part of the report commonly called the “body”. The body is the part of the report that analysis and interpretations where needed. It is usually preceded by an introduction, and an ending section of conclusion, and recommendation.

B) ORGANIZATION BY DIVISION:

You may view organizing as a process of division. First you divide the whole into parts, then you divide the parts into subparts. You may subdivide further.

C) DIVISION BY CONVENTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS:

In dividing your information into subparts, you have to find a way of dividing that will produce approximately equal parts. Time, place, quantity and factor are the general bases for these divisions. Time, place, quantity and factor are the bases for the process of division. When the interpretation has a time basis division by time is possible. When the information is related to geographic location, a place division is possible. Division based on the quantity is possible when the information has a number base. (For Example).Rs.10000 to 20000 (on) age 18-30 etc.,

Factors are areas to be investigated are the fourth basis for dividing information (For Example) The following organizational problem should be treated on the basis of location accessibilities, rent, parking, facilities sometimes combinations of time (For Example) The period orientation from May-July, Place Place of Sales: North, South, East, West., quantity and factor are sometimes logical.

D) WORKING OF THE OUTLINE:

The outline in its finished form is the table of contents. Its part serve has headings to the sections of the report (which is why we refer to three parts has headings in the following discussion) because the outline is an important part of the report, you should construct the final wording carefully. When outlining you may use topic or talking headings give only the subject of discussion. For example present armar unit a) description & output, b) Cost, c) Deficiencies.

Talking headings identify the subject and tell what is said about it (For example) Operation analysis of armor unit a) Recent log in overall output, b) Increase in cost of operations. Then every heading making up a level of division should be parallel grammatically (i.e) Parallelism of construction. Then whenever you are using headings see to that you are maintaining the conciseness in wording. Finally you want to use variety of expressions. Repeating words in headings can be monotonous. So you should not overwork works.

In writing the report, communicate clearly and quickly, when you write your report see that you follow these guidelines.

REQUIREMEN OF OBJECTIVITY:

Good report writing is objective. They don’t include subjective data for analysis by objective report we mean keep out of all prejudices & biases and your report should seek the truth. Another thing your objective writing should be believable. Second historically objective writing has meant for writing has meant for writing impersonally, they don’t include I, we, you etc., Recently, some writers have argued that personal writing is more interesting than impersonal writing and just as objective. Good advice is to use personal style for routine reports and impersonal style for more formal reports.

CONSISTENCY IN TIME VIEWPOINT:

Presenting information in the right place in time is a major problem in keeping order in a report. Keep a consistent time view point throughout the report. There are two time viewpoints past and present. Select any one and do not change. The past time view point views the research and the findings as past, and prevailing concepts and proven conclusions as present. The present time view point presents as current all information that can be assumed to be current at the time of writing.

NEED FOR TRANSITION:

A well written report reads as one continuous story. The parts connect smoothly. You should use transition to connect the parts of the report. Transition means “bridging across”. Transitional are words or sentences that show the relationships of succeeding parts. Transitions should be used where there is or need to connect the parts of the report. They should be made naturally, not mechanically. For connecting large parts, transition sentences may be used and also use of topic sentences also helps improve thought flow. Transitional words show relationships between lesser parts.

1) MAINTAINING INTERS :

Report writing should be interesting. Interesting writing is necessary for good communication. Interesting writing is the result of careful words choice, rhythm, concreteness- in fact, all the good writing techniques. But efforts to make writing interesting can be overdone. The writing style should be never draw attention away from the information.

COLLABORATIVE REPORT WRITING

Collaborative report preparation is common for good reasons. Group involvement in report preparation is becoming increasingly significant for a number of reasons. They are :-

DETERMINATION OF GROUP MAKEUP:

Groups should have five as fewer members and include all pertinent specialization areas. Preferably, the group has a leader, but there are exceptions.

TECHNIQUES OF PARTICIPATION:

Headers and participants have clear duties to make the procedure work. Groups often experience results that are less than ideal. Consult references on effective group.

PROCEDURE OF THE WORK:

At least two meetings and a work period are needed. The following activities activities normally occur, usually in this sequence

1) First, determine the report purpose

2) Derive the factors involved for analysis

3) Gather the information needed

4) Interpret the information

5) Organize the material

6) Plan the writing

7) Assign the parts to be written

8) Write parts assigned

9) Revise the writing collaboratively

10) Edit the final draft as a synergistic final outcome.

Your decision about report structure will be based on the needs of your situation. Those needs are related to report length and formality of the situation. The longer the problem and the more formal the situation, the more involved the report structure is likely to be. The shorter the problem and the more informal the situation, the less involved the report structure is likely to be. Such adjustments of report structure to length and formality help meet the reader’s needs in each situation.

Generally the reports are classified based on their length and formality with high end reports to the low end reports. At the top of the stairway are the most formal , full-dress reports. Such reports have a number of pages that come before the first chapter. These pages serve useful purposes, but they also dress up the report. Typically, these prefatory pages as they are called, are included when the problem situation is formal and the report is long. The exact makeup of the prefatory pages may vary, but the most common arrangement includes these parts: title fly, title page, letter of transmittal, table of contents, and executive summary. Flyleaves blank pages at the beginning and end that protect the report also may be included. The first two pages title fly and title page contain identification information. The title fly carries only the report title. The title page typically contains the title, identification of the writer and reader, and usually the date. As the words imply, the letter of transmittal is a letter that transmits the report. It is a personal message from the writer to the reader. The table of contents, of course, is a listing of the report contents. It is the report outline in finished form, with page numbers to indicate where the parts begin. It also may include a list of illustrations ( tables, figures, diagrams ), which may be a separate part. The executive summary summarizes whatever is important in the report – the major facts and analyses, conclusions and recommendations.

As the need for the formality decreases and the problem becomes smaller, the makeup of the report changes. The changes primarily occur in the prefatory pages. As we have noted, these pages give the report a formal appearance. So it is not surprising that they change as the report situation becomes less formal. Usually, such reports are shorter. Although the changes that occur are far from standardized, they follow a general order. First, the title fly drops out . This page contains only the report title, which also appears on the next page. Obviously, the title fly is used primarily for reasons of formality. Next in the progression, the executive summary and the letter of transmittal are combined. When this stage is reached, the report problem is short enough to be summarized in a short space. The report at this stage has three prefatory parts: title page , table of contents, and combination transmittal letter and executive summary.

At the fourth step, the table of contents drops out. The table of contents is a guide to the report text, and a guide has limited value in a short report. Certainly, a guide to a 100 page report is necessary. But the guide to a one-page report is not. Somewhere between these extremes a dividing points exists. You should follow the general guide of including a table of contents whenever it appears to be of some value to the reader. Another step down, as formality and length requirements continue to decrease, the combined letter of transmittal and executive summary drops out. Thus, the report commonly called the short report now has only a title page and the report text. The title page remains to the last because it serves as a very useful cover page. In addition, it contains the most important identifying information.

The short report is a popular form in business. Below the short-reports form is a form that reinstates the letter of transmittal and summary and presents the entire report as a letter – thus, the letter report. And finally, for short problems of more informality, the email form is used. Knowledge of the general relationship of formality and length to report makeup should help you understand and plan reports.

The shorter report forms are the most common in business. These are the everyday working reports those used for the routine information reporting that is vital to an organization’s

a.) Little need for introductory information

Most of the shorter, more informal reports require little sometimes no introductory material. These reports typically concern day-to-day problems. Their lives are short that is , they are not likely to be kept on file for future readers. They are intended for only a few readers, and these readers know the problem. They are likely to need little introduction to it. Determining what introductory material is needed is by analyzing what does the reader need to know before receiving this report. Some shorter reports need introductory material in extreme cases you may need a detailed introduction comparable to that of the more formal reports.

b.) Predominance of the direct order

Shorter reports are written in direct order which means the report begins with its most important information usually the conclusion and perhaps a recommendation. Business writers use this order because they know that their readers main concern is to get the information needed to make a decision. Deciding whether to use the direct order is best based on a consideration of your reader’s likely use of the report. If your readers need the report conclusion or recommendation as a basis for an action that they must take, directness will speed their effort by enabling them to quickly receive the most important information. The indirect order makes presentations in a formal introduction, analysis , conclusion. But the direct order gives the main message first then depending on the problem the direct beginning could consist of a summary of facts , a conclusion, a recommendation, or some combination of summary, conclusion and recommendation. The indirect order has this sequence , introduction, facts and analysis, conclusions and recommendations.

c.) More personal writing style :

Although the writing for all reports is much the same, writing in shorter reports tends to be more personal. That is, the shorter reports are likely to use the personal pronouns I, WE, YOU rather than only the third person. Shorter report situation usually involve personal relationship because these reports tend to be from and to people who know each other and who normally address each other informally when they meet. Then they involve personal investigation of analysis in their writer needs and finally shorter reports tend to deal with day to day routine problems. The problems are by very nature informal and it is logical to report them informally and personal writing tends to produce this informal effect. The decision of whether to write a report in personal or impersonal style should be based on the situation. Write impersonally when your reader prefers it. It should be clear that either personal or impersonal writing can be appropriate for reports ranging from the shortest to the longest types.

d.) Less need of structured coherence plan :

Long and formal usually require a structured coherence plan. Shorter reports do not. This is not to say that coherence is not essential to short reports. The point is that a structured plan is not needed. By structured coherence plan we mean an arrangement of summarizing, forward looking, and backward looking parts that tie together the report presentation. Therefore in shorter reports this plan is not needed since they directly move to main information or conclusion.

a.) The short report :

One of the more popular of the less formal reports forms is the short report. The short report consists of a title page and the report text. These reports are in the direct order , beginning with the conclusion. Then based on the need the introduction comes next, then the findings and analyses, and finally conclusions.

b.) Letter report:

The second of the more common shorter report forms is the letter report, that is, a report in letter form. They are used primarily to present information to persons outside the organization especially when the information is to be sent by mail or fax. They are usually written in personal style and cover short problems. If a letter report is begun in the direct order, a subject line is appropriate. It may written in a capital letters or written by giving a sub topic subject and writing the text. Theorganizational plans of the letter report are much like longer report which has a direct order and indirect order.

c.) Email Reports :

Email is most widely used form of written communication in business. Although heavily used for communicating with outside parties, email dominates internal written communication. That is, email is written by and to people in an organization. Because email is primarily communication between people who know each other it is usually informal. In fact many are hurried and casual messages , some are usually formal for high profile audience. Some are more formal, factual and problem related.

a.) Staff Report :

One of the more popular forms of reports used in business is the staff report. Usually written in memorandum form, it can be adapted to any structural type, including the long , formal report. The staff report differs from other forms of report primarily in the organization of its contents. It arranges contents in a fixed plan. The plan remains the same for all problems. Because this arrangement leads systematically to conclusions and recommendations, it is especially useful for business problems. The basic course of plan is summary , problem objective , facts , discussion , conclusions , recommendation. One of the major uses of staff reports is the armed forces , all branches of which use a standardized form. But military version of plan is somewhat different from the above plan.

b.) Meeting Minutes :

Minutes provide a written record of a group’s activities and decisions , a history that includes announcements reports, significant discussion and decisions. Minutes include objective data because they will highlight who will do what and when. Accurate minutes are important because they can have some legal significance as to whether decisions are binding. The physical form is typically a memo or email, but the layout varies among organizations. Basically, it should enable the reader to easily focus on the content as well as easily retrieve it. Typical minutes include common preliminary body, such as name of the group, name of the document , type of meeting , place date and time called to order , names of those attending the meeting , names of those absent and reasons for absence. The body items include approval of minutes of previous meeting , meeting announcements , old business – reports on the matter previously presented and new business- reports on matters presented to the group. The closing item include place and time of next meeting , notation of the meeting’s ending time , name and signature of the person responsible for preparing the minutes. Preparing ahead of time makes the job easier and encourages more complete notes.

c.) Progress report :

A progress report presents a review of progress made on an activity. Most of the reports are informal send through mail, as a worker reporting the duty of the particular work done to his superior. Certain formal reports include reporting the progress made for huge projects.

d.) Audit Report:

Short form and long form audit reports are well known in business. The short form audit report is perhaps the most standardized of all reports. The standardized statement verifying an accountant’s inspection of a firm’s financial records. Long form of audit reports vary in their makeup.

A proposals is a persuasive presentation for consideration of something.

Proposals are usually written, but they can be oral presentations or a combination of both. They may be made by individuals or organizations, including business organizations, and they may be made to any of a variety of individuals or organizations such as government agencies, foundations, businesses. They can even be made internally by one part of a business to another part or to the management of the business

Proposals may be Invited or Prospecting

By invited we mean that the awarding organizations announces to interested parties that it will make an award and that it is soliciting proposals. A government agency might have funds to award for research projects. In their announcements, the awarding organizations typically describe their needs and specify the unique requirements that the proposals should cover. In business situations , invited proposals usually follow preliminary meetings between the parties involved. At the meeting the representatives would discuss the need with suppliers. Prospecting proposals are much like rational sales letter , they amount to descriptions of what the writer’s organization could do if given an award by the reader’s organization. A person ,institution can write a proposals to a philanthropic foundation to avail funds.

Format and organization

The physical arrangement and organization of proposals vary widely. The simplest proposals resemble formal email report s. Internal proposals those written for and by people in the same organization usually fall in to this category, though exceptions exist. The more complex proposals may take the form of full-dress , long reports, including prefatory pages. Select the format appropriate for your one case. Your design should be the one that you think is best for the one situation.

Formality Requirements

The formality requirements of proposals vary. In some cases ( a university proposal for research grant), strict formality is expected. In other cases informality is in order. The decision should be based primarily on the relationship between the parties involved. The degree of formality or informality is expected regardless of the relationship of the parties.

Content

Determine the content of a proposal by reviewing the needs of the case. If the proposal has been invited, review the invitation. If the proposal is uninvited, use judgment in determining the readers needs. As a general guideline follow these rules in writing the content of a proposal

Writer’s purpose and the reader’s need

An appropriate beginning is a statement of the writer’s purpose to present a proposal and the reader’s need to reduce turnover of field representatives. If the report is in response to an invitation, that statement should tie in with the invitation. If a proposal is submitted without invitation, its beginning has an additional requirement it must gain attention. As noted previously, uninvited proposals are much like sales messages. Their intended readers are not likely to be eager to read them. Thus, their beginnings must overcome the readers reluctance. An effective way of doing this is to begin by briefly summarizing the highlights of the proposal with emphasis on its benefits.

Background

A review of background information promotes an understanding of the problem. A background information should be provided in order to justify your statement of the need mentioned in the proposal. Based on the background information, the need of the proposal is determine.

Description of the plan

The heart of a proposal is the description of what the writer proposes to do. This is the primary message of the proposals. It should be concisely presented in a clear and orderly manner.

Particulars

By particulars we mean the specifics: time schedules, costs, performance standards, means of appraising performance, equipment and supplies needed, guarantees, personnel requirements, and such. What is needed in a given case depends on its unique requirements. But in any event, the particulars should anticipate and answer the reader’s questions.

Evidence of ability to deliver

The proposing organization must sometimes establish its ability to perform. This means presenting information on such matters as the qualifications of personnel, success in similar cases, the adequacy of equipment and facilities, operating procedures, and financial status. Whatever information will serve as evidence of the organization’s ability to carry out what it proposes should be used.

Benefits of the proposals

The proposals also might describe good things that it would bring about, especially if a need exists to convince the readers. Typically like selling.

Concluding comments

The proposal should end with words directed to the next step-acting on the proposal. One possibility is to present a summary review of the highlights. Another is to offer additional information that might be needed, yet another is to urge or suggest action on the proposal.

LISTENING SKILLS

Effective listening is an important aspect for good communication. Listening is different from hearing. By listening we mean all our senses especially your mind and body will be focused and concentrated. Listening to others improve your personality.

The listening process starts from receiving the information or noise, and then your mind will interpret the information by your mental filters and little information will be remembered in your brain storage by which it is evaluated based on your judgment and finally the response will be delivered in the way of verbal voice or loud applause.

TYPES OF LISTENING

1. CONTENT LISTENING: In this process a person will listen just to receive and remember the contents of particular information just for knowing what is what. Here he is not going to make any action based on the information received.
2. CRITICAL LISTENING: In this process a person will listen the entire information and analyze or interprets the contents and meaning of the information rationally. Here the objective of this listening is to give either a positive or negative feedback about the topic.
3. EMPATHIC LISTENING: Here people will listen to someone or information based on empathic feeling towards the information or person. Here the objective is you have a courtesy respect towards the person, for that sake you listen to them.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING

1. Listeners who jump to conclusion close their mind in receiving additional information.
2. Self-centered listeners shift attention from speaker to themselves.
3. Selective listeners just listen to few topics and ignore rest.
4. Physical distraction such as noise and mental distraction such as

IMPROVING LISTENING SKILLS

1. Don’t judge the message by the speaker but by the argument.
2. Decrease your emotional impact.
3. Fight distraction by closed doors and turning off radio and television.
4. Don’t interrupt in the middle, please wait to hear the entire message fully.
5. Provide feedback and let the speaker know that you are paying attention.
6. Offer facial expression and provide your criticism in a positive tone.
7. Listen actively for key points, ideas and facts.
8. Distinguish between evidence and argument, idea and example.
9. Take brief notes so that key points can be discussed.
10. Reserve your judgment until the speaker has finished the topic.

NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non verbal communication is a process of communication that occurs without words. (Communication which occurs through our body movements, space, time, voice patterns, color layout and design of our surroundings)

CLASSIFICATION OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. 1. KINESICS
2. 2. PROXEMICS
3. 3. TIME LANGUAGE
4. 4. PARALANGUAGE
5. 5. PHYSICAL CONTEXT

1. KINESICS: Kinesics is the study of body physical movements. It is the way our body communicates without words and it’s occupying a major aspect of non verbal communication process. When we communicate our thought process and attitude is transmitted in the form of body movements by which our inner state of mind is reflected in our movements. Thus you can realize these expressions by face and eyes, gestures, posture and physical appearance.

1. Facial expression is the first way to communicate particularly eyes and eye movement. We can express happiness, surprise, fear, anger and sadness everything through our eyes.
2. The gesture is our body parts especially arms, legs, hands and head convey meaning. All these movements are made rationally along with our speaking and not made with any intention.
3. Body shape is related to our biological factor and it is natural but poster is how we stretch our body in different styles. Body shapes are classified in to three they are ectomorph which is thin, youthful, and tall then the mesomorph is muscular fit body and finally endomorph which is fat, round, and soft.
4. Appearance includes clothes, hair style, jewelry, cosmetics and such styles which we include in our daily life by which we communicate how we want to project our self.

1. PROXEMICS: It involves how we arrange personal space and what we arrange in it. They create meaning in your mind and others mind as well. They are also called personal space language which involves how we are maintaining relationship with a person with intimate space, personal space, social space and finally public space. All this things are typical example of our relationship space with our father, friend, boss and a stranger.

1. TIME LANGUAGE: Time language is all about the meaning we convey through time. In western countries time equates money because their business culture is like that. The same thing apply may differ for other cultures. Therefore time language is associated with culture as well.

1. PARALANGUAGE: It involves how we say something in different pitch, tone and voice modulation such as slow or fast. Based on voice language we infer people background and personality.

1. PHYSICAL CONTEXT: It refers to our surroundings, colour, layout and design of our physical environment. For example colour of the building and room, design of table and chairs etc. All these things communicate a lot to our feelings and emotions.

To conclude Non verbal communication is an art as well a skill. We communicate through letters, reports, mails but they are all one way communication but daily we communicate with people which is a two way process.

This interpersonal communication requires a lot of care in non verbal cues through which we can improve our relationship better and increase a chance of good business dealings which again is an essential ingredient in face to face communication.

BARRIERS (or) MALFUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

All our communication problems occur from language imperfections and incorrect thinking patterns. If a communication wants to be effective one should note a point that all exchange of information should be made with the judgment and reality of the particular situation.

1. TWO-VALUED THINKING
2. FACT-INFERENCE CONFUSION
3. THE BLOCKED MIND
4. THE STATIC VIEWPOINT
5. FAILURE TO DISCRIMINATE
6. DECEPTIVE TACTICS
7. INFORMATION OVERLOAD
8. WRONG CHOICE OF MEDIUM
9. PHYSICAL BARRIERS
10. RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT

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1. TWO-VALUED STATEMENT: During communicating we consider that there is always just two values for any statement or situation. Some situation demands statements like yes or no, pass or fail, to buy or not to buy etc. Here we are having only two options in this particular statement beyond that we cannot say anything. But certain statements we will come across multi-valued situation. Example is rich – poor, fat-skinny, tall-short etc. In this statements you cannot just say rich – poor because a person who having a wealth of one crore is considered as a rich person and a person who is having fifty crore is also called as a rich person. Similarly a begger who lives in an street is also poor at the same time a person earning a monthly income of four thousand is also called as poor. Therefore proper distinction should be made while you make specific reference. Without knowing this proper distinction if you are communication then there is a communication problem. Overcoming this problem is based on being aware of the problem and using words precisely. You make statements with specific quantitative reference , instead of saying he has got first class percentage say that he got 65% , similarly you can make qualitative reference, instead of saying I agree you can say I strongly agree , agree, disagree, strongly disagree. Therefore we should be specific in communicating along with seeing the reality of the situation. This rule will helps a lot in writing a business letter or report.

1. FACT – INFERENCE CONFUSION: There is always a difference between fact and reality. Some statements involve inference of particular topic but we must always do a reality check of our argument of inference. People may say we expect the sales record of 80% during next month; similarly attendance percentage will be only 15% in the weekend. But all these statements are based on inference of prediction and not by reality. On the other hand we cannot believe these statements all the time because these are predictions and you must always verify these with facts of reality. Without checking the probability of correctness this communication leads to fact inference confusion because your perception may be completely different from reality.

1. THE BLOCKED MIND: This is a state of not accepting extra information or seeing the overall picture of reality. We always frame certain ideas in our mind based on our beliefs, attitudes, opinions and values. Based on our narrow ideas we tend to see only the tip of the iceberg or one thought and forget to see the entire picture. This tendency is known as allness, judging the whole thing with a small part. Our stereotype of references should not block the other references of a particular topic. Therefore one should get out of this problem by unblocking the mind. You should be open to receive all the information, than based on your judgment analysis decide what to accept and which statement to reject.

1. THE STATIC VIEWPOINT: Static view point is a tendency of just having one idea or information as static or permanent through out various time dimensions. Few people communicate with same information throughout every time period. But they fail to notice the information what is true today may not applicable tomorrow. We must accept as time changes so do our pattern of communication changes. For example you cannot say that I know to write a letter but I cannot compose an email. So don’t have a fixed pattern of thought, you should always be open and update yourself with the information as per the changes in time. You must be open in receiving information and updating it as when the environment demands you.

1. FAILURE TO DISCRIMINATE: When we communicate we speak based on similarity of events. For example all men are rough and tuff is a statement of similarity but exceptions are there. All teachers adopt same method of lecture teaching is a similarity statement but exceptions occurring based on teaching style. Therefore we must not see all communication based on similarity of events rather we should able to judge the best to worst. You buy dozen of apple but all of them are not in the same taste. So you cannot say apples are great in taste. You should be able to differentiate based on your judgment and logic of reality.

1. DECEPTIVE TACTICS: This is a tendency of over emphasizing a statement. That is making or showing information in an exaggerated manner. Generally people use to hide the facts or give false statement about a topic of discussion in communication. But the reality of the situation will be different.

1. INFORMATION OVERLOAD: This is the amount of information one receive. For example your mail inbox is filled with information and you want to replay as soon as possible, at the same time you getting a phone call and a customer are waiting to talk to you. Your boss is asking urgent information. Now all these things in a particular point of time create information overload.

1. WRONG CHOICE OF MEDIUM: Medium is a tool which we use for communicating our ideas. Cell phone, letters, mail, slide presentation etc. When you select wrong medium for communication it creates a problem. You cannot ask a bank statement just with a phone call because written document is authentic.

1. PHYSICAL BARRIERS: Physical barriers include noise, inappropriate timing, and spatial distance.

1. RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT: You want to communicate according to the situation and time. All communication cannot happen in the same way. Thus you should analyze the audience and the environment before you communicate. If the environment is not appropriate do not communicate or adopt a different strategy for communicating.

At the end communication is successful only when the feed back is clear. It is our responsibility as a communicator to check all these barriers and present a proper communication.

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STRESS MANAGEMENT

Definition

Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. Emotional stress usually occurs when people consider situations difficult or unable to manage. Different people consider different situations as stressful.Physical stress refers to a physical reaction of the body to various triggers. The pain experienced after surgery is an example of physical stress. Physical stress often leads to emotional stress, and emotional stress often occurs as physical discomfort (e.g., stomach cramps).

Stress management involves controlling and reducing the tension that occurs in stressful situations by making emotional and physical changes. The degree of stress and the desire to make the changes will determine how much change takes place.

ASSESSING STRESS

Attitude: A person’s attitude can influence whether or not a situation or emotion is stressful. A person with a negative attitude will often report more stress than would someone with a positive attitude.

Physical well-being: A poor diet puts the body in a state of physical stress and weakens the immune system. As a result, the person can be more likely to get infections. A poor diet can mean unhealthy food choices, not eating enough, or not eating on a normal schedule. This can cause a person to not get enough nutrients.

This form of physical stress also decreases the ability to deal with emotional stress, because not getting the right nutrition may affect the way the brain processes information.

Physical activity: Not getting enough physical activity can put the body in a stressful state. Physical activity has many benefits. A regular physical activity program can help decrease depression, if it exists. It also improves the feeling of well-being.

Support systems: Most everyone needs someone in their life they can rely on when they are having a hard time. Having little or no support makes stressful situations even more difficult to deal with.

Relaxation: People with no outside interests, hobbies, or ways to relax may be unable to handle stressful situations because they have no outlet for their stress.

AN INDIVIDUAL STRESS MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

• Positive thinking.
• Refocus the negative to be positive.
• Make an effort to stop negative thoughts.
• Plan some fun. Take a break.

Physical activity:

• Start an individualized program of physical activity. Most experts recommend doing 20 minutes of aerobic activity 3 times per week.
• Decide on a specific time, type, frequency, and level of physical activity. Make this dedicated time fit into your schedule so it can be part of your routine.
• Find a buddy to exercise with — it is more fun and it will encourage you to stick with your routine.
• You do not have to join a gym — 20 minutes of brisk walking outdoor will do the trick.

Nutrition:

• Plan to eat foods for improved health and well-being. For example, increase the amount of fruits and vegetables you eat.
• Use the food guide pyramid to help select healthy food choices.
• Eat an appropriate amount of food at a reasonable schedule.

Social support:

• Make an effort to interact socially with people. Even though you feel stressed, you will be glad to have gone out to meet your friends if only to get your mind off of things.
• Reach out to individuals.
• Nurture yourself and others.

Relaxation:

• Learn about and try using one or more of the many relaxation techniques, such as guided imagery, listening to music, or practicing yoga or meditation. One or more should work for you.
• Take time for personal interests and hobbies.
• Listen to one’s body.
• Take a mini retreat.

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Chapter Outline

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Communication and its Process
4. Components of Communication
5. Barriers to Communication
6. Patterns of Communication
   1. One Way Communication
   2. Two Way Communication
      1. One to One
      2. One to Many
      3. Many to One
7. Types of Communication
   1. Verbal
      1. Oral
      2. Written
   2. Non-verbal
8. Let Us Sum up
9. Glossary
10. References and Further readings
11. Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

Have you ever felt the messages you convey are not communicated properly or have you ever felt guilty of not conveying the message as it wants to be conveyed? If so it is because of your weakness towards communication skills. Apart from the basic necessities, you need to be equipped with habits for good communication skills, as this is what will make you a happy and successful social being. In order to develop these habits, you need to first acknowledge the fact that communication skills need an improvement from time to time. The only constant in life is change, and the more you accept your strengths and work towards dealing with shortcomings, especially in the area of communication skills, the better will be your interactions and the more your social popularity. Thus the present unit enables you to get a detailed picture of the need and importance of developing communication skills and feel confident and empowering to face any type of situation in life.

We use ‘communication’ usually to mean speaking or writing or sending a message to another person. Communication is really much more than that. It involves a number of choices and decisions but being natural and unnoticed in informal situations. In formal situations, our communication needs to be more effective and carefully chosen, that is, we need to plan our communication. Here comes the question what is Communication or how communication could be defined?
Communication may be broadly defined as the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is the process by which meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among human beings. – D.E. McFarland.
Looked at more closely, what is essential for communication to occur is the cooperation between two parties, one active or at the giving end and the other passive or at the receiving end.
The sender selects appropriate symbols to suit the situation and realizes the meaning through speech or writing depending upon the socially regulated requirements or self-perceived needs. At the receiving end the symbols are identified and identification obviously implies recognition and realization of meaning through the interpretive process.
The process of Communication may be summarized as follows:

Communication is thus a network of interactions and naturally the sender and the receiver keep on changing their roles.
Another aspect of communication is the deployment of a code consisting of arbitrarily evolved symbols and the determination of the appropriateness of their use in given situations, leading to the emergence of diverse communication patterns. A number of factors come into play in shaping these patterns. In fact, communication is often but not always momentary. At times communication is a cumulative process that starts before the actual communicative event takes place and continues after it has occurred. Thus communication therefore must acquire a true perspective of not only the present requirements of the situation but also its relationship with the past and its impact on the future.

Communication is a process where one sets out to convey a message to another person through the medium of words, gestures and / or pictures. The process of conveying the message is fulfilled only when the person receiving it has understood the message entirely.

The cycle gives the process of communication. It would be observed that the entire event takes place within a common frame of reference, also called as communication environment. The source refers to the point of origin of a message which is encoded by the sender and transmitted through the channel to the receiver. The receipt of the message exercises an impact in communication environment leading to some result. The observance of the result by the sender is called ‘feedback’.
During feedback the direction of the communication process is reversed. When providing feedback, the original receiver goes through the same process as did the original sender with the same factors influencing the receiver. The receiver may use the same channel / a different channel for feedback.
The message sent is not the same as the message received. It is also to be noted that all the messages do not produce the intended result. Thus, the success of communication is measured in terms of not only the effective transmission of the message but also the achievement of the intended result.

Communication is not always successful. Several things can prevent the message from reaching the intended recipient or from having the desired effect on the recipient. There may be some fault in the communication system which may prevent the message from reaching. Some of these defects are in the mechanical devices used for transmitting – medium, some are in tools we use for communication – language, and some are in nature of persons who are engaged in communication – the sender and recipient / receiver. It can be divided into three broad groups: Listening, Speaking and Environmental.
Listening barriers:

• Interrupting the speaker
• Not maintaining eye contact with the speaker
• Rushing the speaker to complete what he/she has to say
• Making the speaker feel as though he/she is wasting the listener's time
• Being distracted by something that is not part of the ongoing communication
• Getting ahead of the speaker and completing his/her thoughts
• Ignoring the speaker's requests
• Topping the speaker's story with one's own set of examples
• Forgetting what is being discussed
• Asking too many questions, for the sake of probing

Barriers while speaking:

• Unclear messages
• Lack of consistency in the communication process
• Incomplete sentences
• Not understanding the receiver
• Not seeking clarifications while communicating

Environmental barriers include:

• An individual's subjective viewpoint towards issues/people, which leads to assumptions
• An emotional block, which can lead to an attitude of indifference, suspicion or hostility towards the subject
• An emotional block or bias that is based on a third party's view point, or on what you have read/heard
• Words can have different meanings to different people, thus blocking communication
• Use of negative words

Communication can be one way and two way process. Both the patterns are followed in various circumstances effectively and efficiently by the people in the society. There is also horizontal and vertical movement of information from one source to another. The horizontal flow keeps individuals of the same status and peer groups informed of what others are doing and what is expected of them. The vertical communication is both downward and upward. It is essential to have both upward and downward movement since mere downward flow is like talking to a person continuously without giving him a chance to respond. In such situation the pattern will be as given in One Way communication and when mutual chance is given to the listener, the pattern is similar to two way communication.

• A person always instructing another
• Always speaking without giving chance for the other to respond
• Always directing the other to do something
• Conveying some information to other and so on.

• A person named X instructs Y
• Y reports to X
• X speaks to Y
• Y responds to X and so on

This two way communication could be classified into two: One to many and many to one.

(a)One to One Communication

In one to one communication there is only one sender and one receiver wherein the sender passes on some information to the receiver and the receiver passes on to the sender in return. Such kind of communication is one to one communication in two way communication pattern.

(b)One to Many Communication

In one to many communication there is only one sender and one or more receiver wherein the sender passes on some information to all the receivers and each of the receiver passes on / replies to the sender in return. Such kind of communication is One to Many Communication in two way communication pattern.

(c)Many to One Communication

In Many to One Communication there are several senders and one receiver wherein all the senders pass on some information to the receiver and the receiver replies for them. Such kind of communication is Many to One Communication in two way communication pattern.
It is obvious that conveying all information to everybody would be a meaningless exercise. For proper functioning of a Communication system the following questions should be asked and the answers constantly reviewed:

• What information is to be conveyed?
• Who requires it?
• What should be its form?
• What techniques of dissemination should be used?
• What technological aids should be used?

Communication takes place by exchanging symbols to describe our ideas and experience. Language is a common symbol system which is used for sharing our experiences with others. We can also use other symbols like pictures, colours, signs and sounds to communicate. We do communicate a number of things by our facial expressions, movements, clothing and so on, though we do not speak. Thus communications through words are called Verbal Communication; communications through symbols are called non-verbal communication.

We use verbal communication for most purposes. Verbal communication may be oral or written.
a)ORAL COMMUNICATION:

Oral Communication is more natural and immediately available for responding to a comment / statement. In natural and informal situations, we speak readily without hesitation in order to communicate with others; but in a formal and official situation, many persons feel nervous and cannot speak easily. It needs training, practice and skill to speak effectively in a formal situation.
Oral communication requires the presence and simultaneous attention of both the persons. Need for personal presence makes certain demands on the skills of both; each must be able to respond to the body language of the other, and must be able to make immediate response to what the other says.
Oral communication occurs in situations like conversations, telephone talk, interviews, presentations, group discussions, and meetings.

FACE-TO-FACE CONVERSATION:

Oral communication is best when it is face-to-face. A face-to-face setting is possible between two individuals or among a small group of persons at an interview, or in a small meeting, where both the sender and the receiver could see each other and communicate. Communication can flow both ways in these situations. Here, an immediate feedback, which gives clarification is possible. Besides, a face-to-face setting offers a rich communication experience owing to the presence of the living personality whose voice, tone, expressions and movements add significance to the words.

TELEPHONE TALK:

Telephone talk depends entirely on the voice and its quality. It does not have the advantage of physical presence or facial expressions since there is no option to look at others physical appearance at live. Clarity of speech and skillful use of voice are important in this kind of communication. There can be confusion between similar sounding words like “pale” and “bale”, or between “light” and “like”. Names and addresses communicated on the telephone are sometimes wrongly received. It is therefore customary in telephonic conversation to clarify spellings by saying G for God, P for pen etc.

PRESENTATION:

It has a face-to-face setting. It is a formal, well-prepared talk on a specific topic, delivered to knowledgeable and interested audience. It looks odd and slumbers if the presentation is not welcomed by the audience to which it is presented. At times a touch of humour always enriches the presentation. The purpose for such kind of communication is to give / pass on the information rather than making them dull and sleepy.

PUBLIC SPEECH:

A public speech or lecture also has a face-to-face setting, but here the space between the speaker and audience do matters. This distance increases as the audience gets larger, as in an open air public meeting. This way of communication much depends on the speaker’s skill in using gestures and using the microphone in the correct order.

INTERVIEW:

An interview is a meeting at which one person or panel of persons, who are the interviewers, discuss a matter with another person or ask questions of another person, who is the interviewee. The purpose is, usually to assess, to judge whether it would be worthwhile to enter into a relationship with the other. An interview is of structured question and answer type of communication.

MEETING:

Usually a meeting involves many persons; there is a chair person or leader who leads and guides the communication and maintains perfect order. There is a fixed agenda, that is, a list of issues to be discussed at the meeting. Meetings are of many types, from the small committee meeting consisting of three or four persons to the large conference or the share holders’ meeting. This type of oral communication is backed up by note-taking and writing up of minutes.

b)WRITTEN COMMUNICATION:

Written communication is used for many purposes. Many types of documents are required for official work. Letters, circulars, memos, notices, reports and minutes are constantly prepared and exchanged in and between organizations. All has a format and layout which is fixed by custom.
Letter:
Letters are the most widely used form of written communication. They are used mostly for external communication. A letter has a complex lay-out which has to be carefully followed.

Memo:

Memo, short form of memorandum, is an informal message between members of an organization and generally relates to daily work. Information or instructions can be conveyed by a memo. A memo may or may not be signed.

Notice:

A notice is used in order to communicate the same message within an organization. It is the most common method of mass communication, within an organization. It should be short, its language should be simple and the type should be large and well spaced for easy reading.

Circular:

A circular is a detailed document giving information, instructions or orders on a specific matter. A circular has a number and date for reference, and is signed by the authorized signatory of the issuing office. They are generally issued by government department and other official bodies like government departments, councils, universities and Head Offices of organizations.

Report:

A report is a document prepared by an individual or a committee entrusted with the task of collecting information on a given subject. It requires careful research, collection of data and presentation of the findings, conclusions and recommendations. Reports are of varying length and may be anything from two pages to a full book dived into chapters.

Minutes:

Minutes are the written record of decisions taken at a meeting. Different bodies have their own convention of recordings the discussion and the decisions. Minutes may be written by hand or typed and pasted in minute books, or typed and filled in a minute file. Minutes are a legal document.

Non-verbal methods of communication can be consciously created and used with both written and oral communication. Graphics of all kinds can enrich the message presented in a document or in a speech. Pictures, maps, charts, diagrams, sketches, cutouts, models, etc., communicate more effectively quality vice and clarity vice than verbal communication. Apart from these symbols we consciously may convey the meaning by facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, clothing, posture, etc. These are called body language. They do communicate more than verbal communication.
Non-verbal communication occurs even when there is no verbal communication. Going by the road side, on seeing the no parking board, we are not parking our vehicles near it. Rather a NSS volunteer person when suggesting not to leave our vehicle in that place, often we ignore him. Thus we say that non-verbal communication, by way of a picture here, communicates something more than what is communicated through verbal communication. Henceforth, a good understanding of non-verbal communication will entitle a person or persons to communicate more effectively than what is conveyed through verbal communication.

• Barriers - Hurdles / Obstacles
  
• Perceived - Understood
  
• Deploy - Organize
  
• Arbitrary - Arranged without any reason

Self-Assessment Questions – 1

1. Speaking or writing
   
2. Choices & decisions
   
3. Informal
   
4. Planning
   
5. Interaction
   
6. Co-operation
   
7. Receiving
   
8. Spoken & Written
   
9. Recognition & realization
   
10. Identification & Interpretation
    
11. Sender & Receiver
    
12. Replies
    
13. Speaking & Writing
    
14. Momentary
    
15. Present, Past & future
    

Self-Assessment Questions – 2

1. Words, Gestures & Pictures
   
2. Noise
   
3. Feedback
   
4. Reversed
   
5. Effective transmission & intended results
   
6. Listening
   

Self-Assessment Questions – 3

1. One way & Two way
   
2. Upward & downward
   
3. One way
   
4. Two way
   
5. One
   
6. One sender & Many receiver
   
7. Many to One
   

Self-Assessment Questions – 4

1. The following questions are to be questioned for proper functioning of a communication system:
   
   1. What information is to be conveyed?
      
   2. Who requires it?
      
   3. What should be its form?
      
   4. What techniques of dissemination should be used?
      
   5. What technological aids should be used?
      

Self-Assessment Questions – 5

1. Verbal & Non-verbal
   
2. Words / vocabularies
   
3. Oral or written
   
4. Oral / verbal
   
5. Physical presence
   
6. Telephonic
   
7. Face-to-face
   
8. Humour
   
9. Increases
   
10. A chair person / A Leader
    
11. Written
    
12. Informal
    

Self-Assessment Questions – 6

1. A notice should be short, its language should be simple and the type should be large and well spaced for easy reading.
   
2. A circular is a detailed document giving information, instructions or orders on a specific matter. A circular has a number and date for reference, and is signed by the authorized signatory of the issuing office.
   
3. A report is a document prepared by an individual or a committee entrusted with the task of collecting information on a given subject. It requires careful research, collection of data and presentation of the findings, conclusions and recommendations.
   
4. Minutes are the written record of decisions taken at a meeting. They are prepared carefully and undersigned and kept as a record / legal document for future reference.
   

Self-Assessment Questions – 7

1. Non-verbal
   
2. Non-verbal
   
3. Facial
   
4. Body
   
5. Effective
   

• Adler, R. B. and Rodman, G. Understanding Human Communication. Chicago; Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. 1991
  
• Devito, J. A. Human Communication: The Basic Course. New York; HarperCollins. 1994
  
• Mohan, Krishna & Banerji, Meera. Developing Communication Skills. Mac Millan Publichations, New Delhi. 2004
  
• Rai, Urmila & Rai, S.M. Essentials of Business Communication Skills for Engineers. Himalaya Publishing House. Mumbai. 2002