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Filipino Americans (Filipino: Mga Pilipinong Amerikano) are Americans of Filipino descent. The term Filipino American is sometimes shortened to Fil-Ams^[15] or Pinoy.^[16] The earliest appearance of the term Pinoy (feminine Pinay), was in a 1926 issue of the Filipino Student Bulletin.^[17] Some Filipinos believe that the term Pinoy was coined by Filipinos who came to the United States to distinguish themselves from Filipinos living in the Philippines.^[18]

Filipinos in North America were first documented in the 16th century,^[19] and other small settlements beginning in the 18th century.^[20] Mass migration did not begin until the early 20th century, when the Philippines was ceded from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris.^[21][22]

• 2Culture
• 4Community issues
  • 4.1Immigration
  • 4.2Mental health

Background[edit]

Filipino sailors were the first Asians in North America.^[23] The first recorded presence of Filipinos in what is now the United States dates back to October 1587 around Morro Bay, California,^[24] with the first permanent settlement in Louisiana in 1763,^[25] with small settlements beginning in the 18th century.^[26] Mass migration began in the early 20th century when, for a period following the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the Philippines was a territory of the United States. During the 1920s, a majority of Filipino immigrating to the United States were not skilled.^[27]

Philippine independence was recognized by the United States on July 4, 1946. After independence in 1946, Filipino American numbers continued to grow. Immigration was reduced significantly during the 1930s, except for those who served in the United States Navy, and increased following immigration reform in the 1960s.^[28] The majority of Filipinos who immigrated after the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 were skilled professionals and technicians.^[27]

The 2010 Census counted 3.4 million Filipino Americans;^[29] the United States Department of State in 2011 estimated the total at 4 million, or 1.1% of the U.S. population.^[30] They are the country's second largest self-reported Asianancestry group after Chinese Americans according to 2010 American Community Survey.^[31][32] They are also the largest population of Overseas Filipinos.^[33] Significant populations of Filipino Americans can be found in California, Hawaii, the New York metropolitan area and Illinois.

Culture[edit]

The history of Spanish and American rule and contact with merchants and traders culminated in a unique blend of Eastern and Western cultures in the Philippines.^[34] Filipino American cultural identity has been described as fluid, adopting aspects from various cultures;^[35] that said there has not been significant research into the culture of Filipino Americans.^[36]Fashion, dance, music, theater and arts have all had roles in building Filipino American cultural identities and communities.^{[37][page needed]}

In areas of sparse Filipino population, they often form loosely-knit social organizations aimed at maintaining a 'sense of family', which is a key feature of Filipino culture. These organizations generally arrange social events, especially of a charitable nature, and keep members up-to-date with local events.^[38] Organizations are often organized into regional associations.^[39] The associations are a small part of Filipino American life. Filipino Americans formed close-knit neighborhoods, notably in California and Hawaii.^[40] A few communities have 'Little Manilas', civic and business districts tailored for the Filipino American community.^[41]

Some Filipinos retain Philippine surnames, such as Bacdayan or Macapagal, while others derive from Japanese, Indian, and Chinese and reflect centuries of trade with these merchants preceding European and American rule.^[42][43][44] Reflecting its 333 years of Spanish rule, many Filipinos adopted Hispanic surnames,^[42] and celebrate fiestas.^[45] Due to the legacy of colonization, Filipinos are considered Latinos of Asia.^[46]

Despite being from Asia, Filipinos are sometimes called 'Latinos' due to their historical relationship to Spanish colonialism.^[46] Similar to Puerto Rico, Filipinos have been subjected to both Spanish and American colonial structures and territory status.^[47] This shared history may also contribute to why some Filipinos choose to also identify as Hispanic or Latino, while others may not and identify more as Asian Americans.^[48] Only a small percentage of Filipino Americans identify as Latino.^[49]

Due to history, the Philippines and the United States are connected culturally.^[50] In 2016, there was $16.5 billion dollars worth of trade between the two countries, with the United States being the largest foreign investor in the Philippines, and more than 40% of remittances came from (or through) the United States.^[51] In 2004, the amount of remittances coming from the United States was $5 billion;^[52] this is an increase from the $1.16 billion sent in 1991 (then about 80% of total remittances being sent to the Philippines), and the $324 million sent in 1988.^[53] Some Filipino Americans have chosen to retire in the Philippines, buying real estate.^[54][55] Filipino Americans, continue to travel back and forth between the United States and the Philippines, making up more than a tenth of all foreign travelers to the Philippines in 2010;^[55][56] when traveling back to the Philippines they often bring cargo boxes known as a balikbayan box.^[57]

Language[edit]

Filipino and English are constitutionally established as official languages in the Philippines, and Filipino is designated as the national language, with English in wide use.^[58] Many Filipinos speak American English due to American colonial influence in the country's education system and due to limited Spanisheducation.^[59] Among Asian Americans in 1990, Filipino Americans had the smallest percentage of individuals who had problems with English.^[60] In 2000, among U.S.-born Filipino Americans, three quarters responded that English is their primary language.^[61]

In 2003, Tagalog was the fifth most-spoken language in the United States, with 1.262 million speakers;^[12] by 2011, it was the fourth most-spoken language in the United States.^[62] Tagalog usage is significant in California, Nevada, and Washington, while Ilocano usage is significant in Hawaii.^[63] Many of California's public announcements and documents are translated into Tagalog.^[64]Tagalog is also taught in some public schools in the United States, as well as at some colleges.^[65] Other significant Filipino languages are Ilocano and Cebuano.^[66] Other languages spoken in Filipino American households include Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Hiligaynon, Bicolano and Waray.^[67] However, fluency in Philippine languages tends to be lost among second- and third-generation Filipino Americans.^[68] Other languages of the community include Spanish and Chinese (Minnan and Fujien).^[13]

Religion[edit]

Religious Makeup of Filipino-Americans (2012)^[69]

The Philippines is 90% Christian,^[45][70] one of only two predominantly Christian countries in Southeast Asia, along with East Timor.^[71] Following the European discovery of the Philippines by Ferdinand Magellan, Spaniards made a concerted effort to convert Filipinos to Catholicism; outside of the Muslim Sultanates in the Philippines, missionaries were able to covert large numbers of Filipinos.^[70] and the majority are Roman Catholic, giving Catholicism a major impact on Filipino culture.^[72] Other Christian denominations include Protestants (Aglipayan, Episcopalian, and others), and nontrinitarians (Iglesia ni Cristo and Jehovah's Witnesses).^[72] Additionally there are those Filipinos who are Muslims, Buddhist or nonreligious; religion has served as a dividing factor within the Philippines and Filipino American communities.^[72]

During the early part of the United States governance in the Philippines, there was a concerted effort to convert Filipinos into Protestants.^[73] As Filipinos began to migrate to the United States, Filipino Roman Catholics were often not embraced by their American Catholic brethren, nor were they sympathetic to a Filipino-ized Catholicism, in the early 20th century.^[74][75] This led to creation of ethnic-specific parishes;^[74][76] one such parish was St. Columban's Church in Los Angeles.^[77] In 1997, the Filipino oratory was dedicated at the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception, owing to increased diversity within the congregations of American Catholic parishes.^[78] The first-ever American Church for Filipinos, San Lorenzo Ruiz Church in New York City, is named after the first saint from the Philippines, San Lorenzo Ruiz. This was officially designated as a church for Filipinos in July 2005, the first in the United States, and the second in the world, after a church in Rome.^[79]

In 2010, Filipino American Catholics were the largest population of Asian American Catholics, making up more than three fourths of Asian American Catholics.^[80] In 2015, a majority (65%) of Filipino Americans identify as Catholic;^[81] this is down slightly from 2004 (68%).^[82] Filipino Americans, who are first generation immigrants were more likely to attend mass weekly, and trended to be more conservative, than those who were born in the United States.^[83]

Cuisine[edit]

The number of Filipino restaurants does not reflect the size of the population.^[84][85][86] Due to the restaurant business not being a major source of income for the community, few non-Filipinos are familiar with the cuisine.^[87] Although American cuisine influenced Filipino cuisine,^[88] it has been criticized by non-Filipinos.^[89] Even on Oahu where there is a significant Filipino American population,^[90] Filipino cuisine is not as noticeable as other Asian cuisines.^[91] On television, Filipino cuisine has been criticized, such as on Fear Factor,^[92] and praised, such as on Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations,^[93] and Bizarre Foods America.^[94]

Filipino American chefs cook in many fine dining restaurants,^[95] including Cristeta Comerford who is the executive chef in the White House,^[85] though many do not serve Filipino cuisine in their restaurants.^[95] Reasons given for the lack of Filipino cuisine in the U.S. include colonial mentality,^[86] lack of a clear identity,^[86] a preference for cooking at home^[85] and a continuing preference of Filipino Americans for cuisines other than their own.^[96]Filipino cuisine remains prevalent among Filipino immigrants,^[97] with restaurants and grocery stores catering to the Filipino American community,^[84][98] including Jollibee, a Philippines-based fast-foodchain.^[99]

In the 2010s, successful and critically reviewed Filipino American restaurants were featured in the New York Times.^[100] That same decade began a Filipino Food movement in the United States;^[101] it has been criticized for gentrification of the cuisine.^[102]Bon Appetit named Bad Saint in Washington, D.C. 'the second best new restaurant in the United States' in 2016.^[103]Food & Wine named Lasa, in Los Angeles, one of its restaurants of the year in 2018.^[104] With this emergence of Filipino American restaurants, food critics like Andrew Zimmern have predicted that Filipino food will be 'the next big thing' in American cuisine.^[105] Yet in 2017, Vogue described the cuisine as 'misunderstood and neglected';^[106]SF Weekly in 2019, later described the cuisine as 'marginal, underappreciated, and prone to weird booms-and-busts'.^[107]

Family[edit]

Filipino Americans, similar to other people of color, undergo experiences that are unique to their own identities. These experiences derive from both the Filipino culture and American cultures individually and the dueling of these identities as well. These stressors, if great enough, can lead Filipino Americans into suicidal behaviors.^[108] Members of the Filipino community learn early on about kapwa, which is defined as “interpersonal connectedness or togetherness.^[109]”

With kapwa, many Filipino Americans have a strong sense of needing to repay their family members for the opportunities that they have been able to receive. An example of this is a new college graduate feeling the need to find a job that will allow them to financially support their family and themselves. This notion comes from “utang na loob,” defined as a debt that must be repaid to those who have supported the individual.^[110]

With kapwa and utang na loob as strong forces enacting on the individual, there is an “all or nothing” mentality that is being played out. In order to bring success back to one's family, there is a desire to succeed for one's family through living out a family's wants as opposed to one's own true desires.^[111] This can manifest as one entering a career path that they are not passionate in, but select in order to help support their family.^[112]

Despite many of the stressors for these students deriving from family, it also becomes apparent that these are the reasons that these students are resilient. When family conflict rises in Filipino American families, there is a negative association with suicide attempts.^[108] This suggests that though family is a presenting stressor in a Filipino American's life, it also plays a role for their resilience.^[108] In a study conducted by Yusuke Kuroki, family connectedness, whether defined as positive or negative to each individual, served as one means of lowering suicide attempts.^[108]

Politics[edit]

Filipino Americans have traditionally been socially conservative,^[113] particularly with 'second wave' immigrants;^[114] the first Filipino American elected to office was Peter Aduja.^[115] In the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election Republican president George W. Bush won the Filipino American vote over John Kerry by nearly a two-to-one ratio,^[116] which followed strong support in the 2000 election.^[117] However, during the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election, Filipino Americans voted majority Democratic, with 50% to 58% of the community voting for President Barack Obama and 42% to 46% voting for Senator John McCain.^[118][119] The 2008 election marked the first time that a majority of Filipino Americans voted for a Democratic presidential candidate.^[120]

According to the 2012 National Asian American Survey, conducted in September 2012,^[121] 45% of Filipinos were independent or nonpartisan, 27% were Republican, and 24% were Democrats.^[119] Additionally, Filipino Americans had the largest proportions of Republicans among Asian Americans polled, a position normally held by Vietnamese Americans, leading up to the 2012 election,^[121] and had the lowest job approval opinion of Obama among Asian Americans.^[121][122] In a survey of Asian Americans from thirty seven cities conducted by the Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund, it found that of the Filipino American respondents, 65% voted for Obama.^[123]

Due to scattered living patterns, it is nearly impossible for Filipino American candidates to win an election solely based on the Filipino American vote.^[124] Filipino American politicians have increased their visibility over the past few decades. Ben Cayetano, former governor of Hawaii, became the first governor of Filipino descent in the United States. The number of Congress-members of Filipino descent doubled to numbers not reached since 1937, two when the Philippine Islands were represented by non-voting Resident Commissioners, due to the 2000 Senatorial Election. In 2009 three Congress-members claimed at least one-eighth Filipino ethnicity;^[125] the largest number to date. Since the resignation of Senator John Ensign in 2011^[126] (the only Filipino American to have been a member of the Senate), and Representative Steve Austria (the only Asian Pacific American Republican in the 112th Congress^[127]) choosing not to seek reelection and retire,^[128] Representative Robert C. Scott was the only Filipino American in the 113th Congress.^[129] In the 116th United States Congress, Scott was joined by Rep. TJ Cox, bringing the number of Filipino Americans in Congress to two.^[130]

Community issues[edit]

Immigration[edit]

The Citizenship Retention and Re-Acquisition Act of 2003 (Republic Act No. 9225) made Filipino Americans eligible for dual citizenship in the United States and the Philippines.^[131] Overseas suffrage was first employed in the May 2004 elections in which Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was reelected to a second term.^[132]

By 2005, about 6,000 Filipino Americans had become dual citizens of the two countries.^[133] One effect of this act was to allow Filipino Americans to invest in the Philippines through land purchases, which are limited to Filipino citizens, and, with some limitations, former citizens.^[134]), vote in Philippine elections, retire in the Philippines, and participate in representing the Philippine flag. In 2013, for the Philippine general election there were 125,604 registered Filipino voters in the United States and Caribbean, of which only 13,976 voted.^[135]

Dual citizens have been recruited to participate in international sports events including athletes representing the Philippines who competed in the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens,^[136] and the Olympic Games in Beijing 2008.^[137]

The Philippine government actively encourages Filipino Americans to visit or return permanently to the Philippines via the 'Balikbayan' program and to invest in the country.^[138]

Filipinos remain one of the largest immigrant groups to date with over 40,000 arriving annually since 1979.^[139] The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) has a preference system for issuing visas to non-citizen family members of U.S. citizens, with preference based generally on familial closeness. Some non-citizen relatives of U.S. citizens spend long periods on waiting lists.^[140] Petitions for immigrant visas, particularly for siblings of previously naturalized Filipinos that date back to 1984, were not granted until 2006.^[141] As of 2016, over 380 thousand Filipinos were on the visa wait list, second only to Mexico and ahead of India, Vietnam and China.^[142] Filipinos have the longest waiting times for family reunification visas, as Filipinos disproportionately apply for family visas; this has led to visa petitions filed in July 1989 still waiting to be processed in March 2013.^[143]

Illegal immigration[edit]

It has been documented that Filipinos were among those naturalized due to the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986.^[144] In 2009, the Department of Homeland Security estimated that 270,000 Filipino were 'unauthorized immigrants'. This was an increase of 70,000 from a previous estimate in 2000. In both years, Filipinos accounted for 2% of the total. As of 2009, Filipinos were the fifth-largest community of illegal immigrants behind Mexico (6.65 million, 62%), El Salvador (530,000, 5%), Guatemala (480,000, 4%), and Honduras (320,000, 3%).^[145] In January 2011, the Department of Homeland Security estimate of 'unauthorized immigrants' from the Philippines remained at 270,000.^[146] By 2017, the number of Filipinos who were in the United States illegally increased to 310,000.^[147] Filipinos who reside in the United States illegally are known within the Filipino community as 'TnT's' (tago nang tago translated to 'hide and hide').^[148]

Mental health[edit]

Identity[edit]

Filipino Americans may be mistaken for members of other racial/ethnic groups, such as Latinos or Pacific Islanders;^[149] this may lead to 'mistaken' discrimination that is not specific to Asian Americans.^[149] Filipino Americans additionally, have had difficulty being categorized, termed by one source as being in 'perpetual absence'.^[150]

In the period, prior to 1946, Filipinos were taught that they were American, and presented with an idealized America.^[139] They had official status as United States nationals.^[151] When ill-treated and discriminated by other Americans, Filipinos were faced with the racism of that period, which undermined these ideals.^[152]Carlos Bulosan later wrote about this experience in America is in the Heart. Even pensionados, who immigrated on government scholarships,^[139] were treated poorly.^[152]

In Hawaii, Filipino Americans often have little identification with their heritage,^[153] and it has been documented that many disclaim their ethnicity.^[154] This may be due to the 'colonial mentality', or the idea that Western ideals and physical characteristics are superior to their own.^[155] Although categorized as Asian Americans, Filipino Americans have not fully embraced being part of this racial category due to marginalization by other Asian American groups and or the dominant American society.^[156] This created a struggle within Filipino American communities over how far to assimilate.^[157] The term 'white-washed' has been applied to those seeking to further assimilate.^[158] Those who disclaim their ethnicity lose the positive adjustment to outcomes that are found in those who have a strong, positive, ethnic identity.^[155]

Of the ten largest immigrant groups, Filipino Americans have the highest rate of assimilation.^[159] with exception to the cuisine;^[160] Filipino Americans have been described as the most 'Americanized' of the Asian American ethnicities.^[161] However, even though Filipino Americans are the second largest group among Asian Americans, community activists have described the ethnicity as 'invisible', claiming that the group is virtually unknown to the American public,^[162] and is often not seen as significant even among its members.^[163] Another term used to describe this status is 'forgotten minority'.^[164]

This description has also been used in the political arena, given the lack of political mobilization.^[165] In the mid-1990s it was estimated that some one hundred Filipino Americans have been elected or appointed to public office. This lack of political representation contributes to the perception that Filipino Americans are invisible.^[166]

The concept is also used to describe how the ethnicity has assimilated.^[167] Few affirmative action programs target the group although affirmative action programs rarely target Asian Americans in general.^[168] Assimilation was easier given that the group is majority religiously Christian, fluent in English, and have high levels of education.^[169] The concept was in greater use in the past, before the post-1965 wave of arrivals.^[170]

The term 'invisible minority' has been used to describe Asian Americans as a whole,^[171][172] and the term 'model minority' has been applied to Filipinos as well as other Asian American groups.^[173] Filipino critics allege that Filipino Americans are ignored in immigration literature and studies.^[174]

As with fellow Asian Americans, Filipino Americans are viewed as 'perpetual foreigners', even for those born in the United States.^[175] This has resulted in physical attacks on Filipino Americans, as well as non-violent forms of discrimination.^[176]

In college and high school campuses, many Filipino American student organizations put on annual Pilipino Culture Nights to showcase dances, perform skits, and comment on the issues such as identity and lack of cultural awareness due to assimilation and colonization.^[177]

Filipino American gay, lesbian, transgender, and bisexual identities are often shaped by immigration status, generation, religion, and racial formation.^[178]

Suicide ideation and depression[edit]

Mental health is a topic that is seldom spoken about among the Filipino American community because of the stigma that is attached to it.^[179] In the documentary “Silent Sacrifices: Voices of the Filipino American Family” Dr. Patricia Heras points out that a lack of communication between 1st generation and 2nd generation Filipino American immigrants can lead to family members not understanding the personal hardships that each one goes through.^[180] Some of the main topics of discussion in this documentary are depression and suicide ideation experienced by the 2nd generation youth.^[180] These topics are supported by a study that was conducted in 1997 by the Federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that revealed that 45.6% of Filipina American teenage students in San Diego public schools had seriously thought about committing suicide. Half of those students had actually attempted suicide.^[181] Although depression cannot be said to cause suicide, the high scores of depression and low self-esteem show a relation to the high scores of suicidal thoughts among Filipinos.^[182]

Depression in Filipinos can sometimes be difficult to notice without digging deeper into their feelings. Filipinos can display their depression in many ways such as showing extreme suffering or smiling even when it may not seem authentic.^[179] Some of the common causes of depression include: financial worries, family separation during the immigration process, and cultural conflict.^[179] One of these cultural conflicts is the belief that one must base decisions on what will “save face” for the family.^[183] A study was published in 2018 by Janet Chang and Frank Samson about Filipino American youth and their non-Filipino friends. They had found that Filipino American youth with three or more close non-Filipino friends were more likely to experience depression and anxiety more so than Filipino American youth with two or less non-Filipino friends that they considered to be close.^[184] Although having friends of diverse backgrounds gave these Filipinos a sense of inclusion among their peers, they also gained a heightened awareness of discrimination.^[184]

Veterans[edit]

During World War II, some 250,000 to 400,000 Filipinos served in the United States Military,^[185][186] in units including the Philippine Scouts, Philippine Commonwealth Army under U.S. Command, and recognized guerrillas during the Japanese Occupation. In January 2013, ten thousand surviving Filipino American veterans of World War II lived in the United States, and a further fourteen thousand in the Philippines,^[187] although some estimates found eighteen thousand or fewer surviving veterans.^[188]

The U.S. government promised these soldiers all of the benefits afforded to other veterans.^[189] However, in 1946, the United States Congress passed the Rescission Act of 1946 which stripped Filipino veterans of the promised benefits. One estimate claims that monies due to these veterans for back pay and other benefits exceeds one billion dollars.^[186] Of the sixty-six countries allied with the United States during the war, the Philippines is the only country that did not receive military benefits from the United States.^[163] The phrase 'Second Class Veterans' has been used to describe their status.^[163][190]

Many Filipino veterans traveled to the United States to lobby Congress for these benefits.^[191] Since 1993, numerous bills have been introduced in Congress to pay the benefits, but all died in committee.^[192] As recently as 2018, these bills have received bipartisan support.^[193]

Representative Hanabusa submitted legislation to award Filipino Veterans with a Congressional Gold Medal.^[194] Known as the Filipino Veterans of World War II Congressional Gold Medal Act, it was referred to the Committee on Financial Services and the Committee on House Administration.^[195] As of February 2012 had attracted 41 cosponsors.^[196] In January 2017, the medal was approved.^[197]

There was a proposed lawsuit to be filed in 2011 by The Justice for Filipino American Veterans against the Department of Veterans Affairs.^[198]

In the late 1980s, efforts towards reinstating benefits first succeeded with the incorporation of Filipino veteran naturalization in the Immigration Act of 1990.^[163] Over 30,000 such veterans had immigrated, with mostly American citizens, receiving benefits relating to their service.^[199]

Similar language to those bills was inserted by the Senate into the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009^[200] which provided a one time payment of at least 9,000 USD to eligible non-US Citizens and 15,000 USD to eligible US Citizens via the Filipino Veterans Equity Compensation Fund.^[201] These payments went to those recognized as soldiers or guerrillas or their spouses.^[202] The list of eligibles is smaller than the list recognized by the Philippines.^[203] Additionally, recipients had to waive all rights to possible future benefits.^[204] As of March 2011, 42 percent (24,385) of claims had been rejected;^[205] By 2017, more than 22,000 people received about $226 million in one time payments.^[206]

In the 113th Congress, Representative Joe Heck reintroduced his legislation to allow documents from the Philippine government and the U.S. Army to be accepted as proof of eligibility.^[207] Known as H.R. 481, it was referred to the Committee on Veterans' Affairs.^[208] In 2013, the U.S. released a previously classified report detailing guerrilla activities, including guerrilla units not on the 'Missouri list'.^[209]

In September 2012, the Social Security Administration announced that non-resident Filipino World War II veterans were eligible for certain social security benefits; however an eligible veteran would lose those benefits if they visited for more than one month in a year, or immigrated.^[210]

Beginning in 2008, a bipartisan effort started by Mike Thompson and Tom Udall an effort began to recognize the contributions of Filipinos during World War 2; by the time Barack Obama signed the effort into law in 2016, a mere fifteen thousand of those veterans were estimated to be alive.^[211] Of those living Filipino veterans of World War II, there were an estimated 6,000 living in the United States.^[212] Finally in October 2017, the recognition occurred with the awarding of a Congressional Gold Medal.^[213] When the medal was presented by the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, several surviving veterans were at the ceremony.^[214] The medal now resides in the National Museum of American History.^[215]

Holidays[edit]

Congress established Asian Pacific American Heritage Month in May to commemorate Filipino American and other Asian American cultures. Upon becoming the largest Asian American group in California, October was established as Filipino American History Month to acknowledge the first landing of Filipinos on October 18, 1587 in Morro Bay, California. It is widely celebrated by Fil-Ams.^[216][217]

Notable people[edit]

References[edit]

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    'Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths'. The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. Pew Research Center. 19 July 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2017. Filipino Americans: 89% All Christian (65% Catholic, 21% Protestant, 3% Other Christian), 8% Unaffiliated, 1% Buddhist
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244. ^'Chicago Filipino American Film Festival'.
245. ^Gonzalez, Joaquin Lucero (2009). Filipino American faith in action: immigration, religion, and civic engagement. New York: NYU Press. p. 99. ISBN978-0-8147-3197-0.
246. ^'Christmas: A National Fiesta'. Center for Southeast Asian Studies. Northern Illinois University. Retrieved 8 June 2011.

Further reading[edit]

• Espiritu, Yen (1995). Filipino American Lives. Temple University Press. p. 232. ISBN978-1-56639-317-1.
• Crisostomo, Isabelo T. (1996). Filipino achievers in the USA & Canada: profiles in excellence. Bookhaus Publishers. p. 369. ISBN978-0-931613-11-1.
• Labrador, Roderick N. Building Filipino Hawai'i (University of Illinois Press, 2015) 170pp
• Bankston III, Carl L. (2005). 'Filipino Americans'. In Min, Pyong Gap (ed.). Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues. Pine Forge Press. pp. 180–202, 368. ISBN978-1-4129-0556-5.
• Isaac, Allan Punzalan (2006). American Tropics: Articulating Filipino America. U of Minnesota Press. p. 256. ISBN978-0-8166-4274-8.
• Pido, Antonio J. A. (1986). The Pilipinos in America: macro/micro dimensions of immigration and integration. CMS Migration and Ethnicity Series. Center for Migration Studies. p. 151. ISBN978-0-913256-78-7.
• Tiongson, Antonio; Gutierrez, Ricardo; Guiterrez, Edgardo, eds. (2006). Positively No Filipinos Allowed: Building Communities and Discourse. Temple University Press. p. 272. ISBN978-1-59213-121-1.
• Stephen M. Cherry (3 January 2014). Faith, Family, and Filipino American Community Life. Rutgers University Press. ISBN978-0-8135-7085-3.

Archive

• Cannery Workers and Farm Laborers Union, Local 7 Records, 1915–1985; Predominantly 1933–1982. 46.31 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington State, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
• Carlos Bulosan Papers, 1914–1976. 4.65 cubic feet, 17 microfilm reels. At the Labor Archives of Washington State, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
• Chris D. Mensalvas Papers, 1935–1974. .25 cubic feet, 1 sound cassette. At the Labor Archives of Washington State, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
• Chris D. Mensalvas Photograph Collection, 1937–1956. 1 folder of photographic prints. At the Labor Archives of Washington State, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
• Trinidad Rojo Papers, 1923–1991. 2.81 cubic feet. At the Labor Archives of Washington State, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.

External links[edit]

• Eloisa Gomez Borah (2012). 'Americans of Filipino Descent – FAQs'. UCLA Anderson School of Management. University of California, Los Angeles.
• 'FANHS National'. Filipino American National Historical Society. 2014.
• 'Filipino American Heritage Website'. Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Program. Smithsonian Institution. 2008.
• de Castro, Christian; Abarquez-de la Cruz, Prosy (9 October 2012). 'The Filipino American Library'. Filipino American Heritage Institute.
• 'Filipino American Resources'. Lemieux Library. Seattle University.
• 'Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center'. Smithsonian Institution.
• Filipino American National Historical Society Hampton Roads Chapter; Council of United Filipino Organizations of Tidewater; MacArthur Memorial Museum; Virginia Beach City Public Schools (2019). 'Born of Empires - Content Academy'. Filipino American National Historical Society Hampton Roads Chapter.

Filipino (English: /ˌfɪlɪˈpiːnoʊ/(listen);^[3]Wikang Filipino[wɪˈkɐŋ ˌfiːliˈpiːno]) is the national language (Wikang pambansa/Pambansang wika) of the Philippines. Filipino is also designated, along with English, as an official language of the country.^[4] It is a standardized variety of the Tagalog language,^[5] an Austronesianregional language that is widely spoken in the Philippines. As of 2007, Tagalog is the first language of 28 million people,^[6] or about one-third of the Philippine population, while 45 million speak Tagalog as their second language.^[1] Tagalog is among the 185 languages of the Philippines identified in the Ethnologue.^[7] Officially, Filipino is defined by the Commission on the Filipino Language (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino in Filipino or simply KWF) as 'the native dialect, spoken and written, in Metro Manila, the National Capital Region, and in other urban centers of the archipelago.'^[8]

Filipino is officially taken to be a pluricentric language, as it is further enriched and developed by the other existing Philippine languages according to the mandate of the 1987 Constitution.^[9] Indeed, there have been observed 'emerging varieties of Filipino which deviate from the grammatical properties of Tagalog' in Cebu,^[10]Davao City, and Iloilo^[11] which together with Metro Manila form the four largest metropolitan areas in the Philippines.

• 7References

Background[edit]

The Philippines is a multilingual state with at least 175 living languages originating and spoken by various ethno-linguistic groups.^[12] There was no one single common language across every cultural group in the Philippine archipelago when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. The four major trade languages were Visayan, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, and Ilocano.^{[citation needed]} As the Philippine languages are mostly closely related and therefore easy for Filipinos to learn, most speakers of smaller languages spoke two or more of such regional languages.^{[citation needed]}

The eventual capital established by the Spaniards in the Philippines was Manila, situated in a Tagalog-speaking region. The first dictionary of Tagalog, published as the Vocabulario de la lengua tagala, was written by the Franciscan Pedro de San Buenaventura,^[13] and published in 1613 by the 'Father of Filipino Printing' Tomas Pinpin in Pila, Laguna. A latter book of the same name was written by CzechJesuit missionary Paul Klein (known locally as Pablo Clain) at the beginning of the 18th century. Klein spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books. He wrote a dictionary, which he later passed to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez.^[14] Further compilation of his substantial work was prepared by Juan de Noceda and Pedro de Sanlucar and published as Vocabulario de la lengua tagala in Manila in 1754 and then repeatedly^[15] re-edited, with the latest edition being published in 2013 in Manila.^[16]

Spanish served in an official capacity as language of the government during the Spanish colonial period. During the American colonial period, English became an additional official language of the Philippines alongside Spanish.

Designation of a national language[edit]

While Spanish and English were considered 'official languages' during the American colonial period, there existed no 'national language' initially. Article XIII, section 3 of the 1935 constitution establishing the Commonwealth of the Philippines provided that:

The National Assembly shall take steps toward the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages. Until otherwise provided by law, English and Spanish shall continue as official languages.

On November 13, 1936, the first National Assembly of the Philippine Commonwealth approved Commonwealth Act No. 184; creating the Institute of National Language (later the Surián ng Wikang Pambansâ or SWP) and tasking it with making a study and survey of each existing native language, hoping to choose which was to be the base for a standardized national language.^[17] Later, President Manuel L. Quezon later appointed representatives for each major regional language to form the NLI. Led by Jaime C. De Veyra, who sat as the chair of the Institute and as the representative of Samar-Leyte-Visayans, the Institute's members were composed of Santiago A. Fonacier (representing the Ilokano-speaking regions), Filemon Sotto (the Cebu-Visayans), Casimiro Perfecto (the Bikolanos), Felix S. Sales Rodriguez (the Panay-Visayans), Hadji Butu (the languages of Filipino Muslims), and Cecilio Lopez (the Tagalogs).^[18]

The Institute of National Language adopted a resolution on November 9, 1937 recommending Tagalog to be basis of the national language. On December 30, President Quezon issued Executive Order No. 134, s. 1937, approving the adoption of Tagalog as the language of the Philippines', and declared and proclaimed the national language so based on the Tagalog dialect as the national language of the Philippines. The order stated that it would take effect two years from its promulgation.^[19] On December 31 of the same year, Quezon proclaimed Tagalog as the basis of the Wikang Pambansâ (National Language) giving the following factors:^[18]

1. Tagalog is widely spoken and is the most understood language in all the Philippine Regions.
2. It is not divided into smaller daughter languages, as Visayan or Bikol are.
3. Its literary tradition is the richest of all native Philippine languages, the most developed and extensive (mirroring that of the Tuscan languagevis-à-visItalian). More books are written in Tagalog than in any other autochthonous Philippine language but Spanish, but this is mainly by virtue of law and .
4. Tagalog has always been the language of Manila, the political and economic center of the Philippines during the Spanish and American eras.
5. Spanish was the language of the 1896 Revolution and the Katipunan, but the revolution was led by people who also spoke Tagalog.

In 1940, the Philippine National Assembly passed Commonwealth Act No. 570 declaring that the Filipino national language would be considered an official language effective July 4, 1946^[20] (coinciding with the country's expected date of independence from the United States). That same year, the Balarílà ng Wikang Pambansâ (English: Grammar of the National Language) of grammarian Lope K. Santos introduced the 20-letter Abakada alphabet which became the standard alphabet of the national language.^[21] The alphabet was officially adopted by the Institute for the Tagalog-Based National Language.

Dissociation with Tagalog[edit]

In 1959, the language became known as Pilipino in an effort to dissociate it from the Tagalog ethnic group.^[22] The changing of the name did not, however, result in universal acceptance among non-Tagalogs, especially Cebuanos who had previously not accepted the 1937 selection.^[23]

The 1960s saw the rise of the purist movement where new words were being coined to replace loanwords. This era of 'purism' by the SWP sparked criticisms by a number of persons. Two counter-movements emerged during this period of 'purism' : one campaigning against Tagalog and the other campaigning for more inclusiveness in the national language. In 1963, Negros Occidental congressman Innocencio V. Ferrer took a case reaching the Supreme Court questioning the constitutionality of the choice of Tagalog as the basis of the national language (a case ruled in favor of the national language in 1970). Accusing the national language as simply being Tagalog and lacking any substantial input from other Philippine languages, Congressman Geruncio Lacuesta eventually led a 'Modernizing the Language Approach Movement' (MOLAM). Lacuesta hosted a number of 'anti-purist' conferences and promoted a “Manila Lingua Franca” which would be more inclusive of loanwords of both foreign and local languages. Lacuesta managed to get nine congressmen to propose a bill aiming to abolish the SWP with an Akademia ng Wikang Filipino, to replace the balarila with a Gramatica ng Wikang Filipino, to replacethe 20-letter Abakada with a 32-letter alphabet, and to prohibit the creation of neologisms and the respelling of loanwords. This movement quietened down following the death of Lacuesta.^[24][23][25]

The national language issue was revived once more during the 1971 Constitutional Convention. While there was a sizable number of delegates in favor of retaining the Tagalog-based national language, majority of the delegates who were non-Tagalogs were even in favor of scrapping the idea of a 'national language' altogether.^[26] A compromise was reached and the wording on the 1973 constitution made no mention of dropping the national language Pilipino or made any mention of Tagalog. Instead, the 1973 Constitution, in both its original form and as amended in 1976, designated English and Pilipino as official languages and provided for development and formal adoption of a common national language, termed Filipino, to replace Pilipino. Neither the original nor the amended version specified either Tagalog or Pilipino as the basis for Filipino; Instead, tasking the National Assembly to:^[27][28]

take steps toward the development and formal adoption of a common national language to be known as Filipino.

In 1987, a new constitution designated Filipino as the national language and, along with English, as an official language.^[29] That constitution included several provisions related to the Filipino language.^[4]

Article XIV, Section 6, omits any mention of Tagalog as the basis for Filipino, and states that:^[4]

as Filipino evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages.

And also states in the article:

Subject to provisions of law and as the Congress may deem appropriate, the Government shall take steps to initiate and sustain the use of Filipino as a medium of official communication and as language of instruction in the educational system.

and:

'What I've Done' is a song by American rock band Linkin Park. It was released as the first single from their third studio album Minutes to Midnight (2007). Linkin park what i've done. What I've Done Lyrics: In this farewell / There's no blood, there's no alibi / 'Cause I've drawn regret / From the truth of a thousand lies / So let mercy come. Lyrics to 'What I've Done' song by Linkin Park: In this farewell There's no blood There's no alibi 'Cause I've drawn regret From the truth Of a thou.

The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein.

Section 17(d) of Executive Order 117 of January 30, 1987 renamed the national language institute to the Institute of Philippine Languages.^[30] Republic Act No. 7104, approved on August 14, 1991, created the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (Commission on the Filipino Language, or KWF), superseding the Institute of Philippine Languages. The KWF reports directly to the President and was tasked to undertake, coordinate and promote researches for the development, propagation and preservation of Filipino and other Philippine languages.^[31] On May 13, 1992, the commission issued Resolution 92-1, specifying that Filipino is the

indigenous written and spoken language of Metro Manila and other urban centers in the Philippines used as the language of communication of ethnic groups.^[32]

However, as with the 1973 and 1987 Constitutions, 92-1 neither went so far as to categorically identify nor dis-identify this language as Tagalog. Definite, absolute, and unambiguous interpretation of 92-1 is the prerogative of the Supreme Court in the absence of directives from the KWF, otherwise the sole legal arbiter of the Filipino language.^{[original research?]}

Filipino was presented and registered with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), by Ateneo de Manila University student Martin Gomez, and was added to the ISO registry of languages on September 21, 2004 with it receiving the ISO 639-2 codefil.^[33]

On 22 August 2007, it was reported that three Malolos City regional trial courts in Bulacan decided to use Filipino, instead of English, in order to promote the national language. Twelve stenographers from Branches 6, 80 and 81, as model courts, had undergone training at Marcelo H. del Pilar College of Law of Bulacan State University following a directive from the Supreme Court of the Philippines. De la Rama said it was the dream of Chief Justice Reynato Puno to implement the program in other areas such as Laguna, Cavite, Quezon, Nueva Ecija, Batangas, Rizal, and Metro Manila.^[34]

Commemoration[edit]

Since 1997, a month-long celebration of the national language occurs during August, known in Filipino as Buwan ng Wika. Previously, this lasted only a week and was known as Linggo ng Wika. The celebration coincides with the month of birth of President Manuel L. Quezon, regarded as the 'Ama ng Wikang Pambansa' (Father of the national language).

In 1946, Proclamation No. 35 of March 26 provided for a week-long celebration of the national language.^[35] this celebration would last from March 27 until April 2 each year, the last day coinciding with birthday of the Filipino writer Francisco Baltazar, author of the Tagalog epic Florante at Laura.

In 1954, Proclamation No. 12 of March 26 provided that the week of celebration would be from March 29 to April 4 every year.^[36] This proclamation was amended the following year by President Ramon Magsaysay by Proclamation No. 186 of September 23, moving the dates of celebration to August 13-19, every year.^[37] Now coinciding with the birthday of President Manuel L. Quezon. The reason for the move being given that the original celebration was a period 'outside of the school year, thereby precluding the participation of schools in its celebration'.^[37]

In 1988, President Corazon Aquino signed Proclamation No. 19, reaffirming the celebration every August 13 to 19. In 1997, the celebration was extended from a week to a month by Proclamation 1041 of July 15 signed by President Fidel V. Ramos.^[38]

Filipino vs. Tagalog[edit]

While the official view (shared by the government, the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino, and a number of educators) is that Filipino and Tagalog are considered separate languages; in practical terms, Filipino may be considered the official name of Tagalog, or even a synonym of it.^[39] Today's Filipino language is best described as 'Tagalog-based';^[40] The language is usually called Tagalog within the Philippines and among Filipinos to differentiate it from other Philippine languages, but it has also come to be known as Filipino to differentiate it from the languages of other countries; the former implies a regional origin, the latter a national. This is similar to the use of names given to the Spanish language: Castilian tends to be used within Spain, and Spanish in international settings.^[41]

Political designations aside, Tagalog and Filipino are linguistically the same; sharing, among other things, the same grammaical structure. On May 23, 2007, Ricardo Maria Nolasco, KWF chair and a linguistics expert, acknowledged in a keynote speech during the NAKEM Conference at the Mariano Marcos State University in Batac, Ilocos Norte, that Filipino was simply Tagalog in syntax and grammar, with as yet no grammatical element or lexicon coming from Ilokano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, or any of the other Philippine languages. He said further that this is contrary to the intention of Republic Act No. 7104 that requires that the national language be developed and enriched by the lexicon of the country's other languages, something that the commission is working towards.^[42][43] On 24 August 2007, Nolasco elaborated further on the relationship between Tagalog and Filipino in a separate article, as follows:

Are 'Tagalog,' 'Pilipino' and 'Filipino' different languages? No, they are mutually intelligible varieties, and therefore belong to one language. According to the KWF, Filipino is that speech variety spoken in Metro Manila and other urban centers where different ethnic groups meet. It is the most prestigious variety of Tagalog and the language used by the national mass media.

The other yardstick for distinguishing a language from a dialect is: different grammar, different language. 'Filipino', 'Pilipino' and 'Tagalog' share identical grammar. They have the same determiners (ang, ng and sa); the same personal pronouns (siya, ako, niya, kanila, etc.); the same demonstrative pronouns (ito, iyan, doon, etc.); the same linkers (na, at and ay); the same particles (na and pa); and the same verbal affixes -in, -an, i- and -um-. In short, same grammar, same language.^[5]

In connection with the use of Filipino, or specifically the promotion of the national language, the related term Tagalista is frequently used. While the word Tagalista literally means 'one who specializes in Tagalog language or culture' or a 'Tagalog specialist', in the context of the debates on the national language and 'Imperial Manila', the word Tagalista is used as a reference to 'people who promote or would promote the primacy of Tagalog at the expense of [the] other [Philippine] indigenous tongues'.^[44]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

1. ^ ^abFilipino at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
2. ^Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). 'Filipino'. Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
3. ^'English pronunciation of Filipino'.
4. ^ ^abcConstitution of the Philippines 1987, Article XIV, Sections 6 and 7
5. ^ ^abNolasco, Ricardo Ma. (24 August 2007). 'Filipino and Tagalog, Not So Simple'. svillafania.philippinepen.ph. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
6. ^'Världens 100 största språk 2007' [The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007], Nationalencyklopedin, Nationalencyklopedin, 2007
7. ^'Philippines'. Ethnologue.
8. ^Pineda, Ponciano B.P.; Cubar, Ernesto H.; Buenaobra, Nita P.; Gonzalez, Andrew B.; Hornedo, Florentino H.; Sarile, Angela P.; Sibayan, Bonifacio P. (13 May 1992). 'Resolusyon Blg 92-1' [Resolution No. 92-1]. Commission on the Filipino Language (in Tagalog). Retrieved 22 May 2014. Ito ay ang katutubong wika, pasalita at pasulat, sa Metro Manila, ang Pambansang Punong Rehiyon, at sa iba pang sentrong urban sa arkipelago, na ginagamit bilang.
9. ^Commission on the Filipino Language Act 1991, Section 2
10. ^Constantino, Pamela C. (22 August 2000). 'Tagalog / Pilipino / Filipino: Do they differ?'. Translated by Antonio Senga. Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia: Northern Territory University. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
11. ^Rubrico 2012, p. 1
12. ^'Philippines'. Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-07-23.
13. ^Ambeth Ocampo (August 1, 2014). ''Vocabulario de la lengua tagala''. Philippine Daily Inquirer.
14. ^Juan José de Noceda, Pedro de Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua tagala, Manila 2013, pg iv, Komision sa Wikang Filipino
15. ^Vocabulario de la lengua tagala at Google Books; Manila (1860).
16. ^Juan José de Noceda, Pedro de Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua tagala, Manila 2013, Komision sa Wikang Filipino
17. ^Commonwealth Act No.184 (13 November 1936), AN ACT TO ESTABLISH A NATIONAL LANGUAGE INSTITUTE AND DEFINE ITS POWERS AND DUTIES
18. ^ ^abAspillera, P. (1981). Basic Tagalog. Manila: M. and Licudine Ent.
19. ^Executive Order No.134 (30 December 1937), PROCLAMING THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE OF THE PHILIPPINES BASED ON THE 'TAGALOG' LANGUAGE
20. ^'- Presidential Proclamations'. elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph.
21. ^'Ebolusyon ng Alpabetong Filipino'. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
22. ^Andrew Gonzalez (1998). 'The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines'(PDF). Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 19 (5, 6): 487. Archived from the original(PDF) on June 16, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-24.
23. ^ ^abAndrew Gonzalez (1998), 'The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines'(PDF), Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19 (5, 6): 487–488, doi:10.1080/01434639808666365, retrieved 2007-03-24.
24. ^Frequently Asked Questions on the National Language(PDF). Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino.
25. ^Tan, Michael L. 'Behind Filipino (2)'. inquirer.net.
26. ^'What the PH constitutions say about the national language'. Rappler.
27. ^Constitution of the Philippines 1973
28. ^Amended Constitution of the Philippines 1976
29. ^Constitution of the Philippines 1987
30. ^'- Executive Orders'. elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph.
31. ^Republic Act No.7104 (14 August 1991), Commission on the Filipino Language Act, retrieved 5 November 2014
32. ^'Resolusyon Blg. 92-1' (in Filipino). Commission on the Filipino Language. 13 May 1992. Retrieved 2007-03-24.
33. ^'Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: fil'. Summer Institute of Linguistics. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
34. ^'3 Bulacan courts to use Filipino in judicial proceedings'. Globalnation.inquirer.net. August 22, 2007. Archived from the original on June 4, 2013. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
35. ^'- Presidential Proclamations'. elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph.
36. ^'Proklama Blg. 12, March 26, 1954, lawphil.net'.
37. ^ ^ab'Proclamation No. 186 of September 23, 1955, lawphil.net'.
38. ^'Proklamasyon Blg. 1041, s. 1997 - GOVPH'.
39. ^Wolff, J.U. (2010). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. pp. 1035–1038. ISBN978-0-08-087775-4.
40. ^Paul Morrow (July 16, 2010). 'The Filipino language that might have been'. Pilipino Express. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
41. ^José Ignacio Hualde; Antxon Olarrea; Erin O'Rourke (2012). The Handbook of Hispanic Linguistics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 49. ISBN978-1-4051-9882-0.
42. ^Inquirer (2007). 'New center to document Philippine dialects'. Asian Journal. Archived from the original on 2008-07-03. Retrieved 2007-06-30.
43. ^'Wika / Maraming Wika, Matatag na Bansa - Chairman Nolasco'. wika.pbworks.com. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
44. ^Martinez, David (2004). A Country of Our Own: Partitioning the Philippines. Los Angeles, California: Bisaya Books. p. 202. ISBN9780976061304.

Sources[edit]

• Commission on the Filipino Language Act, 14 August 1991
• '1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines', Official Gazette, Government of the Philippines
• 'The Amended 1973 Constitution', Official Gazette, Government of the Philippines
• Constitution of the Philippines, 2 February 1987
• The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, Chanrobles Law Library, February 2, 1987, retrieved 2017-02-12
• Tabbada, Emil V. (2005), Gripaldo, Rolando M.; McLean, George F. (eds.), 'Filipino Cultural Traits: Claro R. Ceniza Lectures', Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, IIID, Southeast Asia, Washington, D.C.: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 4, ISBN1-56518-225-1
• Kaplan, Robert B.; Baldauf, Richard B. Jr. (2003), Language and Language-in-Education Planning in the Pacific Basin, Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN1-4020-1062-1
• Manipon, Rene Sanchez (January–February 2013), 'The Filipíno Language'(PDF), Balanghay: The Philippine Factsheet, archived from the original(PDF) on 2013-10-12
• Patke, Rajeev S.; Holden, Philip (2010), The Routledge Concise History of Southeast Asian Writing in English, Abingdon, Oxon, United Kingdom: Routledge, ISBN978-0-203-87403-5
• Paz, Leo; Juliano, Linda (2008), Hudson, Thom; Clark, Martyn (eds.), 'Filipino (Tagalog) Language Placement Testing in Selected Programs in the United States', Case Studies in Foreign Language Placement: Practices and Possibilities, Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii, National Language Resource Center, pp. 7–16, ISBN978-0-9800459-0-1
• Rubrico, Jessie Grace U. (2012), Indigenization of Filipino: The Case of the Davao City Variety, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: University of Malaya

Sources[edit]

• New Vicassan's English–Pilipino Dictionary by Vito C. Santos, ISBN971-27-0349-5
• Learn Filipino: Book One by Victor Eclar Romero ISBN1-932956-41-7
• Lonely Planet Filipino/Tagalog (Travel Talk)ISBN1-59125-364-0
• Lonely Planet Pilipino PhrasebookISBN0-86442-432-9
• UP Diksyonaryong Filipino by Virgilio S. Almario (ed.) ISBN971-8781-98-6, and ISBN971-8781-99-4
• English–Pilipino Dictionary, Consuelo T. Panganiban, ISBN971-08-5569-7
• Diksyunaryong Filipino–English, Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino, ISBN971-8705-20-1
• New English–Filipino Filipino–English Dictionary, by Maria Odulio de GuzmanISBN971-08-1776-0
• Lim English–Filipino Filipino–English Dictionary, by Ed Lim (2008), Lulu.com ISBN978-0-557-03800-8
• 'When I was a child I spoke as a child': Reflecting on the Limits of a Nationalist Language Policy by Danilo Manarpaac. In: The politics of English as a world language: new horizons in postcolonial cultural studies by Christian Mair. Rodopi; 2003 ISBN978-90-420-0876-2. p. 479–492.
• Free Filipino Flashcards by CoboCards

External links[edit]

• Language planning in multilingual countries: The case of the Philippines, discussion by linguist and educator Andrew Gonzalez
• The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines, by Andrew Gonzalez, FSC
• Tagalog dominance must be balanced by support for all languages – Part 1 (archived from the original on 2007-09-02), Part 2 (archived from the original on 2007-09-03), Part 3 (archived from the original on 2008-12-30).
• Kalyespeak.com – Learn Filipino Free Language Learning with Audio Lessons and Podcasts
• TowerofBabelfish.com – Learn Tagalog/Filipino A guide to Tagalog / Filipino
• The Nationalization of a Language: Filipino by C. J. Paz, University of the Philippines
• Learn Filipino A website for learning the Tagalog Language and Culture.
• Learn Filipino Chrome Application A Chrome App for learning the Tagalog Language and Culture.